Navigation of a bad argument: Ad Hominem vs. Attack

Ad Hominem: “(Attacking the person): This fallacy occurs when, instead of addressing someone’s argument or position, you irrelevantly attack the person or some aspect of the person who is making the argument. The fallacious attack can also be direct to membership in a group or institution.” ref  

Examples:

1. Student: Hey, Professor Moore, we shouldn’t have to read this book by Freud. Everyone knows he used cocaine.
2. Socrates’ arguments about human excellence are rubbish. What could a man as ugly as he know about human excellence.
3. Yeah, I think everyone’s opinion counts on moral matters like that, but that Lila sleeps around with anything. I know of at least one marriage she’s broken up, so why should her opinion count on anything, much less morality?
4. Of course, Marx’ theories about the ideal society are bunk. The guy spent all his time in the library.
5. We cannot approve of this recycling idea. It was thought of by a bunch of hippie communist weirdos.
6. There’s no reason to take seriously Nietzsche’s ideas about the Superman. Weak and sickly all his short life, of course, he found this concept captivating. In psychology, we call this compensation.
7. I was assigned a personal trainer at the Rec, and he gave me a new workout program. But I don’t have any confidence in his expertise since he has obvious trouble controlling his own appetite.
8. No, I will not reply. I see no need to defend my views against the objections of ignoramuses. ref 

Damien, check out this meme:

My response, Well, saying your face is a logical fallacy could also be a Non Sequitur (Latin for “it does not follow”) is a pattern of reasoning rendered invalid by a flaw in logic, for example, propositional logic. It is defined as a deductive argument that is invalid.  the logic doesn’t follow and to be an ad hominem fallacy it would have to be more than name calling it would have to be part of one’s argument used in support of something or to refute something. One is in bad form to call names in debating but if not used as an attachment to an argument it is likely not a true ad hominem fallacy. Like I can say someone is dumb but it is not until I say your argument is in error because you are dumb, that is when a bad form attack becomes an ad hominem fallacy. 

“Non Sequitur: (also known as: derailment, “that does not follow”, irrelevant reason, invalid inference, non-support, argument by scenario [form of], false premise [form of], questionable premise [form of], non-sequitur) When the conclusion does not follow from the premises.  In more informal reasoning, it can be when what is presented as evidence or reason is irrelevant or adds very little support to the conclusion.” ref 

“While a logical argument is a non sequitur if, and only if, it is invalid, the term “non sequitur” typically refers to those types of invalid arguments which do not constitute formal fallacies covered by particular terms (e.g. affirming the consequent). In other words, in practice, “non sequitur” refers to an unnamed formal fallacy. In philosophy, a formal fallacy, deductive fallacy, logical fallacy or non sequitur (Latin for “it does not follow”) is a pattern of reasoning rendered invalid by a flaw in its logical structure that can neatly be expressed in a standard logic system, for example, propositional logic. It is defined as a deductive argument that is invalid. The argument itself could have true premises, but still, have a false conclusion.” ref

“Ad hominem attacking your opponent’s character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument. Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone’s case without actually having to engage with it. Example: After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn’t married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.” ref 

“Being accused of an ad hominem fallacy whenever it’s just an ad hominem is an ad hominem fallacy fallacy….” – Challenger 

My response,  “*A fallacy is an argument that doesn’t follow proper rules of logic.
*A fallacy fallacy happens because true statements can be defended through fallacious arguments. Merely proving that an argument is fallacious does not prove that the whole entire position that it defends is immediately false. *A fallacy fallacy fallacy then, is the claim that disproving particular arguments or versions of a position is irrelevant to disproving the position itself. While fallacious reasoning in support of a position does not, in itself, provide absolute proof that the position is false, it does mean that the person making the argument has failed to present any case for it to be true.” ref 

“Damien Marie AtHope, https://laurencetennant.com/bonds/adhominem.html” – Challenger 

My response, “Pointing out any fallacy might sound good, but if the whole argument turns into pointing out fallacies instead of… essentially arguing, the debate becomes pointless.” ref 

“Damien Marie AtHope Agreed. I tend to not call out the names of fallacies because it comes across as very pretentious. And the absolute worst one to call out is the argument from ignorance. It is normally followed with, “who you calling ignorant?” – Challenger   

My response, You stated a universal that is not supported by the link you offered and please if you use the site address the exact quote that supports your argument. Also if you still believe the link supports you, please show me which quote you think supports your universal truth claim that Being accused of an ad hominem fallacy “whenever”(universal truth claim) it’s just an ad hominem is an ad hominem fallacy fallacy. This is from the link you offered but not stated as a universal, “Actual instances of argumentum ad hominem are relatively rare. Ironically, the fallacy is most often committed by those who accuse their opponents of ad hominem, since they try to dismiss the opposition not by engaging with their arguments, but by claiming that they resort to personal attacks. Those who are quick to squeal “ad hominem” are often guilty of several other logical fallacies, including one of the worst of all: the fallacious belief that introducing an impressive-sounding Latin term somehow gives one the decisive edge in an argument.” ref 

“1. Ad hominem: you’re an idiot. While this may be true, unless I’m using it to undermine an argument, it’s not an ad hominem fallacy, just an ad hominem. 2. Ad hominem fallacy: your argument is invalid BECAUSE you’re an idiot. This is a fallacy because I’m using name-calling to undermine the person and not the argument. 3. Ad hominem fallacy fallacy: Your argument is invalid (and I’ve demonstrated it) AND your an idiot. This is where it becomes an ad hominem fallacy fallacy because I did not use an ad hominem to undermine the argument. I demonstrated the argument was invalid AND I used an ad hominem. Since the ad hominem is not used to undermine the argument, calling it an ad hominem fallacy would be an ad hominem fallacy fallacy.” – Challenger  

My response, From the link you offered, “In reality, ad hominem is unrelated to sarcasm or personal abuse. Argumentum ad hominem is the logical fallacy of attempting to undermine a speaker’s argument by attacking the speaker instead of addressing the argument.” ref  

“Damien Marie AtHope Yes, that’s why I used calling someone an idiot (speaks to a lack of intelligence) to undermine the argument in my examples….” – Challenger 

My response, “Ad Hominem (Attacking the person): This fallacy occurs when, instead of addressing someone’s argument or position, you irrelevantly attack the person or some aspect of the person who is making the argument. The fallacious attack can also be direct to membership in a group or institution.” ref Please provide a link with a quote that agrees with your claim you can do an Ad Hominem and it not being a fallacy? Another quote from the link you offered, “If you can’t demonstrate that your opponent is trying to counter your argument by attacking you, you can’t demonstrate that he is resorting to ad hominem. If your opponent’s sarcasm is not an attempt to counter your argument, but merely an attempt to insult you (or amuse the bystanders), then it is not part of an ad hominem argument.” ref 

“I believe you are correct in that I am conflating personal attack with ad hominem….” –Challenger   

My response, Right, as in you stated, “Ad hominem: you’re an idiot. While this may be true, unless I’m using it to undermine an argument, it’s not an ad hominem fallacy, just an ad hominem.” No, unless I’m using it to undermine an argument, it’s not an ad hominem and yes an ad hominem is a fallacy. an attack or sarcasm is not an ad hominem because it is not an attempt to counter your argument.

“I stand corrected…” – Challenger  

My response, Right on, I am glad you see it. 🙂  

Someone asked, What’s your definition of a “jerk” (as in the insult)?

My response, The definition of a “jerk, to me, is someone that is overly offensive in a way that is abusive or a bully to others with a disregard for there feelings. Or takes unfair advantage of others with a disregard of the manipulative harm to them.

Stephen Bond’s examples of correct and incorrect usage of ad hominem, so the term will never be used incorrectly again. 

Starting with what is not an ad hominem:

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “This does not logically follow. By your own argument, the set of rodents is a subset of the set of mammals; and therefore, a weasel can be outside the set of rodents and still be in the set of mammals.” 

Hopefully, it should be clear that neither A’s argument nor B’s argument is ad hominem. Perhaps there are some people who think that any disagreement is an ad hominem argument, but these people shouldn’t be allowed out of fairyland. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “This does not logically follow.”

B’s argument is less comprehensive, but still not ad hominem. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “This does not logically follow. You evidently know nothing about logic.”

B’s argument is still not ad hominem. Note that B directly engages A’s argument: he is not attacking the person A instead of his argument. There is no indication that B thinks his subsequent attack on A strengthens his argument, or is a substitute for engaging with A’s argument. Unless we have a good reason for thinking otherwise, we should assume it is just a sarcastic flourish. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “You evidently know nothing about logic. This does not logically follow.”

B’s argument is still not ad hominem. B does not imply that A’s sentence does not logically follow because A knows nothing about logic. B is still addressing the substance of A’s argument. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “You evidently know nothing about logic.”

B’s argument is, most probably, still not ad hominem. The word “evidently” indicates that B is basing his opinion of A’s logical skills on the evidence of A’s statement. Therefore, B’s sentence is a sarcastic way of saying that A’s argument is logically unsound: B is attacking A’s argument. He is not attacking the person instead of the argument. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “You know nothing about logic.”

Even now, we can’t conclude that B’s reply is ad hominem. It could well be, and probably is, the case that B is basing his reply on A’s argument. He is not saying that A’s argument is flawed because A knows nothing about logic; instead, he is using A’s fallacious argument as evidence to present a new argument: that A knows nothing about logic. –  Stephen Bond 

Put briefly, ad hominem is “You are an ignorant person, therefore your arguments are wrong”, and not “Your arguments are wrong, therefore you are an ignorant person.” The latter statement may be fallacious, but it’s not an ad hominem fallacy. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “This does not logically follow. And you’re an asshole.”

B is abusive, but his argument is still not ad hominem. He engages with A’s argument. There is no reason to conclude that the personal abuse of A is part of B’s argument, or that B thinks it undermines A’s argument. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “You’re an asshole.”

B’s reply is not necessarily ad hominem. There is no evidence that’s his abusive statement is intended as a counter-argument. If it’s not an argument, it’s not an ad hominem argument. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “You evidently know nothing about logic. And you’re an asshole.”

Again, B’s reply is not necessarily ad hominem. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “Fuck you.”

Not ad hominem. B’s abuse is not a counter-argument, but a request for A to cease the discussion. –  Stephen Bond  

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.” B:“Wrong! If a weasel isn’t a rodent, then it must be an insectivore! What an asshole!”

B’s argument is logically fallacious, and he concludes with some gratuitous abuse, but nothing here is ad hominem. –  Stephen Bond  

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.” B:“That does not logically follow.” A: “*Sigh* Do I have to spell it out for you? All rodentsare mammals, right, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal! What’s so hardto understand—!?” B: “I’m afraid you’re mistaken. Look at it logically. If p implies q, thenit does not follow that not-p implies not-q.” A: “I don’t care about so-called logic and Psand Qs and that stuff, I’m talking COMMON SENSE. A weasel ISN’T a mammal.” B:“Okay, this guy’s an idiot. Ignore this one, folks.” A: “AD HOMINEM!!!! I WIN!!!!!”

Although the last line of B, taken out of context, might look ad hominem (and was seized upon as such by A), it should be clear that taken as a whole, B’s argument is not ad hominem. B engaged thoroughly with A’s argument. He is not countering A’s argument by saying A is an idiot; on the contrary, having logically countered A’s argument, and having seen A’s reaction, he is arguing that A is an idiot. –  Stephen Bond   

A: “All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn’t a murderer, and so can’t be a criminal.” B:“Well, you’re a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument.”

Harder to call this one. B is addressing A’s argument, but perhaps unwittingly. –  Stephen Bond  

Now what is an ad hominem:   

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “Well, you’ve never had a good grasp of logic, so this can’t be true.”

B’s argument here is ad hominem. He concludes that A is wrong not by addressing A’s argument, but by appealing to the negative image of A the person. –  Stephen Bond  

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “Well, you’re a moron and an asshole, so there goes your argument.”

B’s reply here is ad hominem and abusive. –  Stephen Bond  

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “Well, you’re a rodent and a weasel, so there goes your argument.”

B’s argument here might appear on superficial inspection to be sound, but it is, in fact, ad hominem. He is using the terms “rodent” and “weasel” in different senses to those used by A. Although he tries to make it appear that he is countering A’s argument by invalidating one of the premises, he is, in fact, trying to counter A’s argument by heaping abuse on A. (This might also be an example of an ad homonym argument.) –  Stephen Bond  

A: “All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “I’m sorry, but I’d prefer to trust the opinion of a trained zoologist on this one.”

B’s argument is ad hominem: he is attempting to counter A not by addressing his argument, but by casting doubt on A’s credentials. Note that B is polite and not at all insulting. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “Listen up, asshole. All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn’t a rodent, so it can’t be a mammal.”
B: “Yet another ad hominem argument. Ignore this one, folks.”

A is abusive, and his argument is fallacious, but it’s not ad hominem. B’s reply, ironically, is ad hominem; while he pretends to deal with A’s argument, in using the term “ad hominem” incorrectly, B is, in fact, trying to dismiss the argument by imputing that A is resorting to personal attacks. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “Listen up, asshole. All rodents are mammals, and a lizard isn’t a mammal, so it can’t be a rodent.”
B: “Yet another ad hominem argument. Ignore this one, folks.”

A’s argument is sound and not ad hominem. B’s reply is again ad hominem. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “B is a convicted criminal and his arguments are not to be trusted.”
B: “Yet another ad hominem argument. Ignore this one, folks.”

A’s argument is ad hominem, since it attempts to undermine all of B’s (hypothetical) arguments by a personal attack. B’s reply is not ad hominem, since it directly addresses A’s argument (correctly characterizing it as ad hominem). –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All politicians are assholes, and you’re just another politician. Therefore, you’re an asshole.”
B: “Yet another ad hominem argument.”

If you accept the premises, A’s argument is sound. Either way, from the given context, we cannot conclude that it is ad hominem: it’s not an attempt to undermine B’s (hypothetical) arguments by abusing him, but instead an attempt to establish that B is an asshole. B’s reply is ad hominem, since by incorrectly using the term “ad hominem”, he is trying to undermine A’s argument by claiming that A is resorting to personal attacks. –  Stephen Bond 

A: “All politicians are liars, and you’re just another politician. Therefore, you’re a liar and your arguments are not to be trusted.”
B: “Yet another ad hominem argument.”

If you accept the premises, A’s argument is sound; but I think most of us would sympathize with B and class it as fallacious, and ad hominem. This is because we do not accept the premise that all politicians are liars. There is a false premise that lies behind all ad hominem arguments: the notion that all people of type X make bad arguments. A has just made this premise explicit. –  StephenBond 

“Intentionally committed fallacies in debates and reasoning are called intellectual dishonesty.” ref 

Intellectual Honesty

“Harvard ethicist Louis M. Guenin describes the “kernel” of intellectual honesty to be “a virtuous disposition to eschew deception when given an incentive for deception.” ref  

Intellectual honesty is an applied method of problem solving, characterized by an unbiased, honest attitude, which can be demonstrated in a number of different ways:

• One’s personal faith, beliefs, or politics do not interfere with the pursuit of truth;
• Relevant facts and information are not purposefully omitted even when such things may contradict one’s hypothesis;
• Facts are presented in an unbiased manner, and not twisted to give misleading impressions or to support one view over another;
• References, or earlier work, are acknowledged where possible, and plagiarism is avoided. ref 

Epistemological Principles in Epistemic Logic

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Settling on the correct formal representation of knowledge involves reflecting carefully on the epistemological principles to which one is committed. An uncontroversial example of such a principle which most philosophers will accept is veridicality: “If a proposition is known, then it is true.” ref  

I agree with those that:

“See Virtue Epistemology as a worthy endeavor as an aim to promote intellectual well being, often accompanied by a “direction of analysis” characteristic of virtue theories in both ethics and epistemology. As well as an epistemological theory should be “practically useful” in helping us recognize when we do or don’t know something, or help us overcome “anxieties” due to defective presuppositions about knowledge. And that Virtue Epistemology should inspire us with portraits of intellectual virtues, thereby promoting cultural reformation and intellectual flourishing. And Virtue Epistemology should examine intellectual vices and other defects to tell cautionary tales of what not to do and how not to be. As well as Virtue Epistemology practitioners should help redesign educational institutions to help students cultivate intellectual virtues.” ref  

The Valued of Good Belief Etiquette

Beliefs should be open to revision and should have been scrutinized before believing to start with or to continue holding. Thus, it can be said that sound justified or warranted beliefs need valid and reliable reason and evidence or likely should not be believed or reevaluated before they are kept as one’s belief. May I be a rationalist, holding fast to a valued belief etiquette: demanding reasoned belief acquisitions, good belief maintenance, and honest belief relinquishment. 

Disciplined-Rationality is motivated by principles of correct reasoning with emphasis on valid and reliable methods or theories leading to a range of rational standpoints or conclusions understanding that concepts and beliefs often have consequences thus hold an imperative for truth or at least as close to truth as can be acquired rejecting untruth.

Disciplined-Rationality can be seen as an aid in understanding the fundamentals for knowledge, sound evidence, justified true belief and involves things like decision theory and the concern with identifying the value(s), reasonableness, verification, certainties, uncertainties and other relevant issues resulting in the most clear optimal decision/conclusion and/or belief/disbelief.

Disciplined-Rationality attempts to understand the justification or lack thereof in propositions and beliefs concerning its self with various epistemic features of belief, truth, and/or knowledge, which include the ideas of justification, warrant, rationality, reliability, validity, and probability. 

Theory of justification is a part of epistemology that attempts to understand the justification of propositions and beliefs. Epistemologists are concerned with various epistemic features of belief, which include the ideas of justification, warrant, rationality, and probability. Loosely speaking, justification is the reason that someone (properly) holds a belief. When a claim is in doubt, justification can be used to support the claim and reduce or remove the doubt. Justification can use empiricism (the evidence of the senses), authoritative testimony (the appeal to criteria and authority), or reason. – Wikipedia

A shallow thinker (i.e. not a Deep Thinker, a person whose thoughts are reasoned, methodological, logical, empirical, profound; an intellectual) quickly talks, often with boastful postulations, likely just as often pushed strongly and loudly as if this adds substance, and they do this before fully understanding what’s is really involved. 

Whereas, A Sound Thinker, is reasoned (comparative more reasoned, superlative most reasoned) generally based on reasoning; being the result of logical thought. As a first debate process, a Sound Thinker commonly poses Questions to understand slowing down and assessing all the facts or factors involved and then builds their argument or ideas. In classical logic, the law of non-contradiction (LNC) (also known as the law of contradiction, principle of non-contradiction (PNC), or the principle of contradiction) states that contradictory statements cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time, e.g. the two propositions “A is B” and “A is not B” are mutually exclusive. It is the second of the three classic laws of thought.

Lastly, let me make this clear, Sound Thinkers don’t value FAITH!

Critical Thinking, What Does it Mean to Be Open to Learn?

A General Thinking in all My Epistemology Theorizing is Justificationism 

May we all see the need to work in championing reason, equality, kindness, humanism, and humanitarianism. And inspire others to do this too. It is not a one-time thing. Rather it is a process for all humanity to work at and strive for. We rise by helping each other. 

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Truth Navigation: Techniques for Discussions or Debates

I do truth navigation, both inquiry questions as well as

strategic facts in a tag team of debate and motivational teaching.

Truth Navigation and the fallacy of Fideism “faith-ism”

Compare ideas not people, attack thinking and not people. In this way, we have a higher chance to promote change because it’s the thinking we can help change if we address the thinking and don’t attack them.

My eclectic set of tools for my style I call “Truth Navigation” (Techniques for Discussions or Debates) which involves:

• *REMS: reason (rationalism), evidence (empiricism), and methodological “truth-seeking” skepticism (Methodic doubt) (the basic or general approach)
• *The Hammer of Truth: ontology, epistemology, and axiology (methodological use of philosophy)
• *Dialectical Rhetoric = truth persuasion: use of facts and reasoning (motivational teaching)
• *Utilizing Dignity: strategic dignity attacks or dignity enrichments (only used if confusion happens or resistance is present)

Asking the right questions at the right time with the right info can also change minds, you can’t just use facts all on their own. Denial likes consistency, the pattern of thinking cannot vary from a fixed standard of thinking, or the risk of truth could slip in. Helping people alter skewed thinking is indeed a large task but most definitely a worthy endeavor. Some of my ideas are because I am educated both some in college (BA in Psychology with addiction treatment, sociology, and a little teaching and criminology) and also as an autodidact I have become somewhat educated in philosophy, science, archaeology, anthropology, and history but this is not the only reason for all my ideas. It is also because I am a deep thinker, just striving for truth. Moreover, I am a seeker of truth and a lover of that which is true.

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Animism: Respecting the Living World by Graham Harvey 

“How have human cultures engaged with and thought about animals, plants, rocks, clouds, and other elements in their natural surroundings? Do animals and other natural objects have a spirit or soul? What is their relationship to humans? In this new study, Graham Harvey explores current and past animistic beliefs and practices of Native Americans, Maori, Aboriginal Australians, and eco-pagans. He considers the varieties of animism found in these cultures as well as their shared desire to live respectfully within larger natural communities. Drawing on his extensive casework, Harvey also considers the linguistic, performative, ecological, and activist implications of these different animisms.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Low Gods “Earth” or Tutelary deity and High Gods “Sky” or Supreme deity

“An Earth goddess is a deification of the Earth. Earth goddesses are often associated with the “chthonic” deities of the underworld. Ki and Ninhursag are Mesopotamian earth goddesses. In Greek mythology, the Earth is personified as Gaia, corresponding to Roman Terra, Indic Prithvi/Bhūmi, etc. traced to an “Earth Mother” complementary to the “Sky Father” in Proto-Indo-European religion. Egyptian mythology exceptionally has a sky goddess and an Earth god.” ref

“A mother goddess is a goddess who represents or is a personification of nature, motherhood, fertility, creation, destruction or who embodies the bounty of the Earth. When equated with the Earth or the natural world, such goddesses are sometimes referred to as Mother Earth or as the Earth Mother. In some religious traditions or movements, Heavenly Mother (also referred to as Mother in Heaven or Sky Mother) is the wife or feminine counterpart of the Sky father or God the Father.” ref

“Any masculine sky god is often also king of the gods, taking the position of patriarch within a pantheon. Such king gods are collectively categorized as “sky father” deities, with a polarity between sky and earth often being expressed by pairing a “sky father” god with an “earth mother” goddess (pairings of a sky mother with an earth father are less frequent). A main sky goddess is often the queen of the gods and may be an air/sky goddess in her own right, though she usually has other functions as well with “sky” not being her main. In antiquity, several sky goddesses in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Near East were called Queen of Heaven. Neopagans often apply it with impunity to sky goddesses from other regions who were never associated with the term historically. The sky often has important religious significance. Many religions, both polytheistic and monotheistic, have deities associated with the sky.” ref

“In comparative mythology, sky father is a term for a recurring concept in polytheistic religions of a sky god who is addressed as a “father”, often the father of a pantheon and is often either a reigning or former King of the Gods. The concept of “sky father” may also be taken to include Sun gods with similar characteristics, such as Ra. The concept is complementary to an “earth mother“. “Sky Father” is a direct translation of the Vedic Dyaus Pita, etymologically descended from the same Proto-Indo-European deity name as the Greek Zeûs Pater and Roman Jupiter and Germanic Týr, Tir or Tiwaz, all of which are reflexes of the same Proto-Indo-European deity’s name, *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr. While there are numerous parallels adduced from outside of Indo-European mythology, there are exceptions (e.g. In Egyptian mythology, Nut is the sky mother and Geb is the earth father).” ref

Tutelary deity

“A tutelary (also tutelar) is a deity or spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation. The etymology of “tutelary” expresses the concept of safety and thus of guardianship. In late Greek and Roman religion, one type of tutelary deity, the genius, functions as the personal deity or daimon of an individual from birth to death. Another form of personal tutelary spirit is the familiar spirit of European folklore.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) in Korean shamanism, jangseung and sotdae were placed at the edge of villages to frighten off demons. They were also worshiped as deities. Seonangshin is the patron deity of the village in Korean tradition and was believed to embody the Seonangdang. In Philippine animism, Diwata or Lambana are deities or spirits that inhabit sacred places like mountains and mounds and serve as guardians. Such as: Maria Makiling is the deity who guards Mt. Makiling and Maria Cacao and Maria Sinukuan. In Shinto, the spirits, or kami, which give life to human bodies come from nature and return to it after death. Ancestors are therefore themselves tutelaries to be worshiped. And similarly, Native American beliefs such as Tonás, tutelary animal spirit among the Zapotec and Totems, familial or clan spirits among the Ojibwe, can be animals.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) in Austronesian beliefs such as: Atua (gods and spirits of the Polynesian peoples such as the Māori or the Hawaiians), Hanitu (Bunun of Taiwan‘s term for spirit), Hyang (Kawi, Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese Supreme Being, in ancient Java and Bali mythology and this spiritual entity, can be either divine or ancestral), Kaitiaki (New Zealand Māori term used for the concept of guardianship, for the sky, the sea, and the land), Kawas (mythology) (divided into 6 groups: gods, ancestors, souls of the living, spirits of living things, spirits of lifeless objects, and ghosts), Tiki (Māori mythology, Tiki is the first man created by either Tūmatauenga or Tāne and represents deified ancestors found in most Polynesian cultures). ” ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

Mesopotamian Tutelary Deities can be seen as ones related to City-States 

“Historical city-states included Sumerian cities such as Uruk and Ur; Ancient Egyptian city-states, such as Thebes and Memphis; the Phoenician cities (such as Tyre and Sidon); the five Philistine city-states; the Berber city-states of the Garamantes; the city-states of ancient Greece (the poleis such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth); the Roman Republic (which grew from a city-state into a vast empire); the Italian city-states from the Middle Ages to the early modern period, such as Florence, Siena, Ferrara, Milan (which as they grew in power began to dominate neighboring cities) and Genoa and Venice, which became powerful thalassocracies; the Mayan and other cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (including cities such as Chichen Itza, Tikal, Copán and Monte Albán); the central Asian cities along the Silk Road; the city-states of the Swahili coast; Ragusa; states of the medieval Russian lands such as Novgorod and Pskov; and many others.” ref

“The Uruk period (ca. 4000 to 3100 BCE; also known as Protoliterate period) of Mesopotamia, named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and the Sumerian civilization. City-States like Uruk and others had a patron tutelary City Deity along with a Priest-King.” ref

“Chinese folk religion, both past, and present, includes myriad tutelary deities. Exceptional individuals, highly cultivated sages, and prominent ancestors can be deified and honored after death. Lord Guan is the patron of military personnel and police, while Mazu is the patron of fishermen and sailors. Such as Tu Di Gong (Earth Deity) is the tutelary deity of a locality, and each individual locality has its own Earth Deity and Cheng Huang Gong (City God) is the guardian deity of an individual city, worshipped by local officials and locals since imperial times.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) in Hinduism, personal tutelary deities are known as ishta-devata, while family tutelary deities are known as Kuladevata. Gramadevata are guardian deities of villages. Devas can also be seen as tutelary. Shiva is the patron of yogis and renunciants. City goddesses include: Mumbadevi (Mumbai), Sachchika (Osian); Kuladevis include: Ambika (Porwad), and Mahalakshmi. In NorthEast India Meitei mythology and religion (Sanamahism) of Manipur, there are various types of tutelary deities, among which Lam Lais are the most predominant ones. Tibetan Buddhism has Yidam as a tutelary deity. Dakini is the patron of those who seek knowledge.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) The Greeks also thought deities guarded specific places: for instance, Athena was the patron goddess of the city of Athens. Socrates spoke of hearing the voice of his personal spirit or daimonion:

You have often heard me speak of an oracle or sign which comes to me … . This sign I have had ever since I was a child. The sign is a voice which comes to me and always forbids me to do something which I am going to do, but never commands me to do anything, and this is what stands in the way of my being a politician.” ref

“Tutelary deities who guard and preserve a place or a person are fundamental to ancient Roman religion. The tutelary deity of a man was his Genius, that of a woman her Juno. In the Imperial era, the Genius of the Emperor was a focus of Imperial cult. An emperor might also adopt a major deity as his personal patron or tutelary, as Augustus did Apollo. Precedents for claiming the personal protection of a deity were established in the Republican era, when for instance the Roman dictator Sulla advertised the goddess Victory as his tutelary by holding public games (ludi) in her honor.” ref

“Each town or city had one or more tutelary deities, whose protection was considered particularly vital in time of war and siege. Rome itself was protected by a goddess whose name was to be kept ritually secret on pain of death (for a supposed case, see Quintus Valerius Soranus). The Capitoline Triad of Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva were also tutelaries of Rome. The Italic towns had their own tutelary deities. Juno often had this function, as at the Latin town of Lanuvium and the Etruscan city of Veii, and was often housed in an especially grand temple on the arx (citadel) or other prominent or central location. The tutelary deity of Praeneste was Fortuna, whose oracle was renowned.” ref

“The Roman ritual of evocatio was premised on the belief that a town could be made vulnerable to military defeat if the power of its tutelary deity were diverted outside the city, perhaps by the offer of superior cult at Rome. The depiction of some goddesses such as the Magna Mater (Great Mother, or Cybele) as “tower-crowned” represents their capacity to preserve the city. A town in the provinces might adopt a deity from within the Roman religious sphere to serve as its guardian, or syncretize its own tutelary with such; for instance, a community within the civitas of the Remi in Gaul adopted Apollo as its tutelary, and at the capital of the Remi (present-day Rheims), the tutelary was Mars Camulus.” ref 

Household deity (a kind of or related to a Tutelary deity)

“A household deity is a deity or spirit that protects the home, looking after the entire household or certain key members. It has been a common belief in paganism as well as in folklore across many parts of the world. Household deities fit into two types; firstly, a specific deity – typically a goddess – often referred to as a hearth goddess or domestic goddess who is associated with the home and hearth, such as the ancient Greek Hestia.” ref

“The second type of household deities are those that are not one singular deity, but a type, or species of animistic deity, who usually have lesser powers than major deities. This type was common in the religions of antiquity, such as the Lares of ancient Roman religion, the Gashin of Korean shamanism, and Cofgodas of Anglo-Saxon paganism. These survived Christianisation as fairy-like creatures existing in folklore, such as the Anglo-Scottish Brownie and Slavic Domovoy.” ref

“Household deities were usually worshipped not in temples but in the home, where they would be represented by small idols (such as the teraphim of the Bible, often translated as “household gods” in Genesis 31:19 for example), amulets, paintings, or reliefs. They could also be found on domestic objects, such as cosmetic articles in the case of Tawaret. The more prosperous houses might have a small shrine to the household god(s); the lararium served this purpose in the case of the Romans. The gods would be treated as members of the family and invited to join in meals, or be given offerings of food and drink.” ref

“In many religions, both ancient and modern, a god would preside over the home. Certain species, or types, of household deities, existed. An example of this was the Roman Lares. Many European cultures retained house spirits into the modern period. Some examples of these include:

• Brownie (Scotland and England) or Hob (England) / Kobold (Germany) / Goblin / Hobgoblin
• Domovoy (Slavic)
• Nisse (Norwegian or Danish) / Tomte (Swedish) / Tonttu (Finnish)
• Húsvættir (Norse)” ref

“Although the cosmic status of household deities was not as lofty as that of the Twelve Olympians or the Aesir, they were also jealous of their dignity and also had to be appeased with shrines and offerings, however humble. Because of their immediacy they had arguably more influence on the day-to-day affairs of men than the remote gods did. Vestiges of their worship persisted long after Christianity and other major religions extirpated nearly every trace of the major pagan pantheons. Elements of the practice can be seen even today, with Christian accretions, where statues to various saints (such as St. Francis) protect gardens and grottos. Even the gargoyles found on older churches, could be viewed as guardians partitioning a sacred space.” ref

“For centuries, Christianity fought a mop-up war against these lingering minor pagan deities, but they proved tenacious. For example, Martin Luther‘s Tischreden have numerous – quite serious – references to dealing with kobolds. Eventually, rationalism and the Industrial Revolution threatened to erase most of these minor deities, until the advent of romantic nationalism rehabilitated them and embellished them into objects of literary curiosity in the 19th century. Since the 20th century this literature has been mined for characters for role-playing games, video games, and other fantasy personae, not infrequently invested with invented traits and hierarchies somewhat different from their mythological and folkloric roots.” ref

“In contradistinction to both Herbert Spencer and Edward Burnett Tylor, who defended theories of animistic origins of ancestor worship, Émile Durkheim saw its origin in totemism. In reality, this distinction is somewhat academic, since totemism may be regarded as a particularized manifestation of animism, and something of a synthesis of the two positions was attempted by Sigmund Freud. In Freud’s Totem and Taboo, both totem and taboo are outward expressions or manifestations of the same psychological tendency, a concept which is complementary to, or which rather reconciles, the apparent conflict. Freud preferred to emphasize the psychoanalytic implications of the reification of metaphysical forces, but with particular emphasis on its familial nature. This emphasis underscores, rather than weakens, the ancestral component.” ref

“William Edward Hearn, a noted classicist, and jurist, traced the origin of domestic deities from the earliest stages as an expression of animism, a belief system thought to have existed also in the neolithic, and the forerunner of Indo-European religion. In his analysis of the Indo-European household, in Chapter II “The House Spirit”, Section 1, he states:

The belief which guided the conduct of our forefathers was … the spirit rule of dead ancestors.” ref

“In Section 2 he proceeds to elaborate:

It is thus certain that the worship of deceased ancestors is a vera causa, and not a mere hypothesis. …

In the other European nations, the Slavs, the Teutons, and the Kelts, the House Spirit appears with no less distinctness. … [T]he existence of that worship does not admit of doubt. … The House Spirits had a multitude of other names which it is needless here to enumerate, but all of which are more or less expressive of their friendly relations with man. … In [England] … [h]e is the Brownie. … In Scotland this same Brownie is well known. He is usually described as attached to particular families, with whom he has been known to reside for centuries, threshing the corn, cleaning the house, and performing similar household tasks. His favorite gratification was milk and honey.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Damien Marie AtHope (Said as “At” “Hope”)/(Autodidact Polymath but not good at math):

Axiological Atheist, Anti-theist, Anti-religionist, Secular Humanist, Rationalist, Writer, Artist, Jeweler, Poet, “autodidact” Philosopher, schooled in Psychology, and “autodidact” Armchair Archaeology/Anthropology/Pre-Historian (Knowledgeable in the range of: 1 million to 5,000/4,000 years ago). I am an anarchist socialist politically. Reasons for or Types of Atheism

My Website, My Blog, & Short-writing or Quotes, My YouTube, Twitter: @AthopeMarie, and My Email: damien.marie.athope@gmail.com