Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Inanna/Ishtar

“Inanna is the ancient Mesopotamian goddess of war, love, and fertility. She is also associated with political power, divine law, sensuality, and procreation. Originally worshipped in Sumer, she was known by the Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians as Ishtar (and occasionally the logogram 𒌋𒁯). Her primary title is “the Queen of Heaven”. She was the patron goddess of the Eanna temple at the city of Uruk, her early main religious center. In archaic Uruk, she was worshipped in three forms: morning Inanna (Inana-UD/hud), evening Inanna (Inanna sig), and princely Inanna (Inanna NUN), the former two reflecting the phases of her associated planet Venus. Her most prominent symbols include the lion and the eight-pointed star. Her husband is the god Dumuzid (later known as Tammuz), and her sukkal (attendant) is the goddess Ninshubur, later conflated with the male deities Ilabrat and Papsukkal.” ref

“The Sumerians worshipped Inanna as the goddess of both warfare and love. Unlike other gods, whose roles were static and whose domains were limited, the stories of Inanna describe her as moving from conquest to conquest. She is portrayed as young and impetuous, constantly striving for more power than had been allotted to her. Inanna was also worshipped as one of the Sumerian war deities. One of the hymns dedicated to her declares: “She stirs confusion and chaos against those who are disobedient to her, speeding carnage and inciting the devastating flood, clothed in terrifying radiance. It is her game to speed conflict and battle, untiring, strapping on her sandals.” Battle itself was occasionally referred to as the “Dance of Inanna”. Epithets related to lions in particular were meant to highlight this aspect of her character. As a war goddess she was sometimes referred to with the name Irnina (“victory”), though this epithet could be applied to other deities as well, in addition to functioning as a distinct goddess linked to Ningishzida rather than to Ishtar. Another epithet highlighting this aspect of Ishtar’s nature was Anunitu (“the martial one”). Like Irnina, Anunitu could also be a separate deity, and as such she is first attested in documents from the Ur III period.” ref

Assyrian royal curse-formulas invoked both of Ishtar’s primary functions at once, invoking her to remove potency and martial valor alike. Mesopotamian texts indicate that traits perceived as heroic (such as a king’s ability to lead his troops and to triumph over enemies) and sexual prowess were regarded as interconnected. While generally classified as a goddess, Inanna/Ishtar could seem at times to have ambiguous gender. Gary Beckman states that “ambiguous gender identification” was a characteristic not just of Ishtar herself but of a category of deities he refers to as “Ishtar type” goddesses (such as Shaushka, Pinikir or Ninsianna). A late hymn contains the phrase “she [Ishtar] is Enlil, she is Ninil” which might be a reference to occasionally “dimorphic” character of Ishtar, in addition to serving as an exaltation. A hymn to Nanaya alludes to a male aspect of Ishtar from Babylon alongside a variety of more standard descriptions. However, Ilona Zsolnay only describes Ishtar as a “feminine figure who performed a masculine role” in certain contexts, for example as a war deity.” ref

“Inanna was worshipped in Sumer as early as the Uruk period (c. 4000 – 3100 BCE or around 6,000 to 5,100 years ago), and her worship was relatively localized before the conquest of Sargon of Akkad. During the post-Sargonic era, she became one of the most widely venerated deities in the Sumerian pantheon, with temples across Mesopotamia. Adoration of Inanna/Ishtar was continued by the East Semitic-speaking peoples (Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians) who succeeded and absorbed the Sumerians in the region. She was especially beloved by the Assyrians, who elevated her to become the highest deity in their pantheon, ranking above their own national god Ashur. Inanna/Ishtar is alluded to in the Hebrew Bible, and she greatly influenced the Ugaritic goddess Ashtart and later the Phoenician goddess Astarte, who in turn possibly influenced the development of the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Her worship continued to flourish until its gradual decline between the first and sixth centuries CE in the wake of Christianity. Inanna appears in more myths than any other Sumerian deity. She also has a uniquely high number of epithets and alternate names, comparable only to Nergal.” ref

“Many of her myths involve her taking over the domains of other deities. She is believed to have been given the mes, which represent all positive and negative aspects of civilization, by Enki, the god of wisdom. She is also believed to have taken over the Eanna temple from An, the god of the sky. Alongside her twin brother Utu (later known as Shamash), Inanna is the enforcer of divine justice; she destroyed Mount Ebih for having challenged her authority, unleashed her fury upon the gardener Shukaletuda after he raped her in her sleep, and tracked down the bandit woman Bilulu and killed her in divine retribution for having murdered Dumuzid. In the standard Akkadian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, Ishtar asks Gilgamesh to become her consort. When he disdainfully refuses, she unleashes the Bull of Heaven, resulting in the death of Enkidu and Gilgamesh’s subsequent grapple with his own mortality. Inanna’s most famous myth is the story of her descent into and return from the ancient Mesopotamian underworld, ruled by her older sister Ereshkigal. After she reaches Ereshkigal’s throne room, the seven judges of the underworld deem her guilty and strike her dead. Three days later, Ninshubur pleads with all the gods to bring Inanna back. All of them refuse her, except Enki, who sends two sexless beings to rescue Inanna. They escort Inanna out of the underworld but the galla, the guardians of the underworld, drag her husband Dumuzid down to the underworld as her replacement. Dumuzid is eventually permitted to return to heaven for half the year, while his sister Geshtinanna remains in the underworld for the other half, resulting in the cycle of the seasons.” ref

“Scholars believe that Inanna and Ishtar were originally separate, unrelated deities, but were conflated with one another during the reign of Sargon of Akkad and came to be regarded as effectively the same goddess under two different names. Inanna’s name may derive from the Sumerian phrase nin-an-ak, meaning “Lady of Heaven”, but the cuneiform sign for Inanna (𒈹) is not a ligature of the signs lady (Sumerian: nin; cuneiform: 𒊩𒌆 SAL.TUG₂) and sky (Sumerian: an; cuneiform: 𒀭 AN). These difficulties led some early Assyriologists to suggest that Inanna may have originally been a Proto-Euphratean goddess, who was only later accepted into the Sumerian pantheon. This idea was supported by Inanna’s youthfulness, as well as the fact that, unlike the other Sumerian divinities, she seems to have initially lacked a distinct sphere of responsibilities. The view that there was a Proto-Euphratean substrate language in Southern Iraq before Sumerian is not widely accepted by modern Assyriologists.” ref

“The name Ishtar occurs as an element in personal names from both the pre-Sargonic and post-Sargonic eras in Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia. It is of Semitic derivation and is probably etymologically related to the name of the West Semitic god Attar, who is mentioned in later inscriptions from Ugarit and southern Arabia. The morning star may have been conceived as a male deity who presided over the arts of war, and the evening star may have been conceived as a female deity who presided over the arts of love. Among the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, the name of the male god eventually supplanted the name of his female counterpart, but, due to extensive syncretism with Inanna, the deity remained as female, although her name was in the masculine form.” ref

“Inanna has posed a problem for many scholars of ancient Sumer due to the fact that her sphere of power contained more distinct and contradictory aspects than that of any other deity. Two major theories regarding her origins have been proposed. The first explanation holds that Inanna is the result of a syncretism between several previously unrelated Sumerian deities with totally different domains. The second explanation holds that Inanna was originally a Semitic deity who entered the Sumerian pantheon after it was already fully structured, and who took on all the roles that had not yet been assigned to other deities. As early as the Uruk period (c. 4000–3100 BCE or around 6,000 to 5,100 years ago), Inanna was already associated with the city of Uruk. During this period, the symbol of a ring-headed doorpost was closely associated with Inanna.” ref 

“The famous Uruk Vase (found in a deposit of cult objects of the Uruk III period) depicts a row of naked men carrying various objects, including bowls, vessels, and baskets of farm products, and bringing sheep and goats to a female figure facing the ruler. The female stands in front of Inanna’s symbol of the two twisted reeds of the doorpost, while the male figure holds a box and stack of bowls, the later cuneiform sign signifying the En, or high priest of the temple. Seal impressions from the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100–2900 BCE or around 5,100 to 4,900 years ago) show a fixed sequence of symbols representing various cities, including those of Ur, Larsa, Zabalam, Urum, Arina, and probably Kesh. This list probably reflects the report of contributions to Inanna at Uruk from cities supporting her cult. A large number of similar seals have been discovered from phase I of the Early Dynastic period (c. 2900–2350 BCE or around 4,900 to 4,350 years ago) at Ur, in a slightly different order, combined with the rosette symbol of Inanna. These seals were used to lock storerooms to preserve materials set aside for her cult.” ref

“During the Akkadian period (c.  2334–2154 BCE or around 4,334 to 5,154 years ago), following the conquests of Sargon of Akkad, Inanna and originally independent Ishtar became so extensively syncretized that they became regarded as effectively the same. The Akkadian poet Enheduanna, the daughter of Sargon, wrote numerous hymns to Inanna, identifying her with Ishtar. As a result of this, the popularity of Inanna/Ishtar’s cult skyrocketed. Alfonso Archi, who was involved in early excavations of Ebla, assumes Ishtar was originally a goddess venerated in the Euphrates valley, pointing out that an association between her and the desert poplar is attested in the most ancient texts from both Ebla and Mari. He considers her, a moon god (e.g., Sin) and a sun deity of varying gender (Shamash/Shapash) to be the only deities shared between various early Semitic peoples of Mesopotamia and ancient Syria, who otherwise had different not necessarily overlapping pantheons.” ref

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“Thumbing one’s nose, also known as cocking a snook, is a sign of derision, disrespect, contempt, or defiance, made by putting the thumb on the nose, holding the palm open and perpendicular to the face, and wiggling the remaining fingers.” ref

“The Assyrian created an enormous empire. They mastered the early art of war. Unfortunately for their enemies, the Assyrians also mastered torture techniques. And they bragged about it! The Assyrians depicted the torture in great detail on the walls of the imperial palaces. They created tablets containing every single punishment the Assyrian army carried out. They cut off the limbs, gouged out the eyes, and then left those poor victims to roam around. Those poor people serve as a living reminder of the Assyrians’ cruelty.” ref

“Hammurabi is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi, which he claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator. It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence. They were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in retribution. The Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities.” ref

Noses Broken on So Many Ancient Egyptian Statues

“Striking Power’: the truth behind the broken noses of Ancient Egyptian sculptures. Numerous pieces, including headless statues of nobles and goddesses and busts of Egyptian kings with broken noses, are on display in the Striking Power.” ref

“Archaeologists continue to discover in situ statues that are missing their noses, indicating that this damage occurred centuries ago. Ancient texts give us clues about what may have happened. First, we know that the ancient Egyptians believed that a soul or a spirit could inhabit an image or object. An inscription about the goddess Hathor, found in the Dendera Temple complex—one of the most important religious sites in ancient times and home to an exquisitely preserved Temple of Hathor today—says, “She flies down into her body, she joins with her form.” Another inscription at the complex reads, “Osiris . . . comes as a spirit . . . He sees his mysterious form depicted in its place, his figure engraved on the wall; he enters into his mysterious form, alights on his image.” When the spirits of these deities entered their drawings and sculptures, they activated the objects (and the temple) as conduits for the living to communicate with the gods. It wasn’t only deities who could inhabit images. Statues of deceased people in tombs and temples were treated as if they were alive; they were given offerings of food, drink, clothing, and anything else that the soul might need to survive in the afterlife.” ref

Commentary on Isaiah 37:29

“I will put my hook in your nose and my bit in your mouth: These two parallel lines begin to describe Yahweh’s control and punishment of Sennacherib. He will lead him by force in the same way that someone leads an animal. I will put my hook in your nose pictures the custom of leading certain animals, such as bulls and camels, by hooks in their noses. It may also be an allusion to the way the Assyrians treated their defeated enemies, as is known from Assyrian texts and monuments. They would place a metal hook through a captive’s nose or lip, tie a rope through the hook, and lead the captive away by the rope.” ref

Rod-and-ring symbol

“The rod-and-ring symbol is a symbol that is depicted on Mesopotamian stelas, cylinder seals, and reliefs. It is held by a god or goddess and in most cases is being offered to a king who is standing, often making a sacrifice, or otherwise showing respect. The symbol dates from the Third Dynasty of Ur to the Neo-Assyrian period, and is commonly explained as a coil of measuring string and a yardstick. Other theories are that they are a shepherd’s crook and a nose rope, or that the ring is no rope at all. The best known example of the symbol is seen on the Code of Hammurabi stela. The symbol is also illustrated in the “Investiture Scene” painted at the palace of Mari. The most elaborate depiction is found on the Ur-Nammu-stela, where the winding of the cords has been detailed by the sculptor. This has also been described as a “staff and a chaplet of beads”. There is discussion whether the Ur-Nammu-stela is showing the same thing.” ref

“The myth of Inanna‘s descent to the nether world describes how the goddess dresses and prepares herself: “She held the lapis-lazuli measuring rod and measuring line in her hand.” In tablet IV of the Enuma Elish, the rod and ring symbol is referenced as: “They rejoiced, and they did homage unto him, saying, “Marduk is King!” They bestowed upon him the scepter, and the throne, and the ring. They gave him an invincible weaponry which overwhelmeth the foe.” ref

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“A falcon, representing Horus, perched above a set of papyrus flowers, the symbol of Lower Egypt. In his talons, he holds a rope-like object which appears to be attached to the nose of a man’s head that also emerges from the papyrus flowers.” ref

Horus

“Horus, also known as Heru, Har, Her, or Hor in Ancient Egyptian, is one of the most significant ancient Egyptian deities who served many functions, most notably as the god of kingship, healing, protection, the sun, and the sky. He was worshipped from at least the late prehistoric Egypt until the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Roman Egypt. Different forms of Horus are recorded in history, and these are treated as distinct gods by Egyptologists. These various forms may be different manifestations of the same multi-layered deity in which certain attributes or syncretic relationships are emphasized, not necessarily in opposition but complementary to one another, consistent with how the Ancient Egyptians viewed the multiple facets of reality. He was most often depicted as a falcon, most likely a lanner falcon or peregrine falcon, or as a man with a falcon head.” ref

“The earliest recorded form of Horus is the tutelary deity of Nekhen in Upper Egypt, who is the first known national god, specifically related to the ruling pharaoh who in time came to be regarded as a manifestation of Horus in life and Osiris in death. The most commonly encountered family relationship describes Horus as the son of Isis and Osiris, and he plays a key role in the Osiris myth as Osiris’s heir and the rival to Set, the murderer and brother of Osiris. In another tradition, Hathor is regarded as his mother and sometimes as his wife. Claudius Aelianus wrote that Egyptians called the god Apollo “Horus” in their own language. However, Plutarch, elaborating further on the same tradition reported by the Greeks, specified that the one “Horus” whom the Egyptians equated with the Greek Apollo was in fact “Horus the Elder”, a primordial form of Horus whom Plutarch distinguishes from both Horus and Harpocrates.” ref

“The pharaoh was associated with many specific deities. He was identified directly with Horus, who represented kingship itself and was seen as a protector of the pharaoh, and he was seen as the son of Ra, who ruled and regulated nature as the pharaoh ruled and regulated society. The Pyramid Texts (c. 2400–2300 BCE) describe the nature of the pharaoh in different characters as both Horus and Osiris. The pharaoh as Horus in life became the pharaoh as Osiris in death, where he was united with the other gods. New incarnations of Horus succeeded the deceased pharaoh on earth in the form of new pharaohs. The lineage of Horus, the eventual product of unions between the children of Atum, may have been a means to explain and justify pharaonic power. The gods produced by Atum were all representative of cosmic and terrestrial forces in Egyptian life. By identifying Horus as the offspring of these forces, then identifying him with Atum himself, and finally identifying the Pharaoh with Horus, the Pharaoh theologically had dominion over all the world.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Myths and Folklore: “Trickster gods and goddesses”

Kutkh

“Kutkh (also Kutkha, Kootkha, Kutq, Kutcha, and other variants, Russian: Кутх) is a Raven spirit traditionally revered in various forms by various indigenous peoples of the Russian Far East. Kutkh appears in many legends: as a key figure in creation, as a fertile ancestor of mankind, as a mighty shaman, and as a trickster. He is a popular subject of the animist stories of the Chukchi people and plays a central role in the mythology of the Koryaks and Itelmens of Kamchatka. Many of the stories regarding Kutkh are similar to those of the Raven among the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, suggesting a long history of indirect cultural contact between Asian and North American peoples. Kutkh is known widely among the people that share a common Chukotko-Kamchatkan language family.” ref

“Regionally, he is known as Kúrkil among the Chukchi; as Kutq among the Itelmens; and as KútqI, KútqIy, or KúsqIy among the southeastern Koryaks and KúykIy or QúykIy among the northwestern Koryaks. In Koryak, the name is employed commonly in its augmentative form, (KutqÍnnaku, KusqÍnnaku, KuyÍnnaku) all meaning “Big Kutkh” and often translated simply as “God. Although Kutkh is supposed to have given mankind variously light, fire, language, fresh water and skills such as net-weaving and copulation, he is also often portrayed as a laughing-stock, hungry, thieving and selfish. In its contradictions, his character is similar that of other trickster gods, such as Coyote.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Low Gods “Earth” or Tutelary deity and High Gods “Sky” or Supreme deity

“An Earth goddess is a deification of the Earth. Earth goddesses are often associated with the “chthonic” deities of the underworld. Ki and Ninhursag are Mesopotamian earth goddesses. In Greek mythology, the Earth is personified as Gaia, corresponding to Roman Terra, Indic Prithvi/Bhūmi, etc. traced to an “Earth Mother” complementary to the “Sky Father” in Proto-Indo-European religion. Egyptian mythology exceptionally has a sky goddess and an Earth god.” ref

“A mother goddess is a goddess who represents or is a personification of nature, motherhood, fertility, creation, destruction or who embodies the bounty of the Earth. When equated with the Earth or the natural world, such goddesses are sometimes referred to as Mother Earth or as the Earth Mother. In some religious traditions or movements, Heavenly Mother (also referred to as Mother in Heaven or Sky Mother) is the wife or feminine counterpart of the Sky father or God the Father.” ref

“Any masculine sky god is often also king of the gods, taking the position of patriarch within a pantheon. Such king gods are collectively categorized as “sky father” deities, with a polarity between sky and earth often being expressed by pairing a “sky father” god with an “earth mother” goddess (pairings of a sky mother with an earth father are less frequent). A main sky goddess is often the queen of the gods and may be an air/sky goddess in her own right, though she usually has other functions as well with “sky” not being her main. In antiquity, several sky goddesses in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Near East were called Queen of Heaven. Neopagans often apply it with impunity to sky goddesses from other regions who were never associated with the term historically. The sky often has important religious significance. Many religions, both polytheistic and monotheistic, have deities associated with the sky.” ref

“In comparative mythology, sky father is a term for a recurring concept in polytheistic religions of a sky god who is addressed as a “father”, often the father of a pantheon and is often either a reigning or former King of the Gods. The concept of “sky father” may also be taken to include Sun gods with similar characteristics, such as Ra. The concept is complementary to an “earth mother“. “Sky Father” is a direct translation of the Vedic Dyaus Pita, etymologically descended from the same Proto-Indo-European deity name as the Greek Zeûs Pater and Roman Jupiter and Germanic Týr, Tir or Tiwaz, all of which are reflexes of the same Proto-Indo-European deity’s name, *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr. While there are numerous parallels adduced from outside of Indo-European mythology, there are exceptions (e.g. In Egyptian mythology, Nut is the sky mother and Geb is the earth father).” ref

Tutelary deity

“A tutelary (also tutelar) is a deity or spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation. The etymology of “tutelary” expresses the concept of safety and thus of guardianship. In late Greek and Roman religion, one type of tutelary deity, the genius, functions as the personal deity or daimon of an individual from birth to death. Another form of personal tutelary spirit is the familiar spirit of European folklore.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) in Korean shamanism, jangseung and sotdae were placed at the edge of villages to frighten off demons. They were also worshiped as deities. Seonangshin is the patron deity of the village in Korean tradition and was believed to embody the Seonangdang. In Philippine animism, Diwata or Lambana are deities or spirits that inhabit sacred places like mountains and mounds and serve as guardians. Such as: Maria Makiling is the deity who guards Mt. Makiling and Maria Cacao and Maria Sinukuan. In Shinto, the spirits, or kami, which give life to human bodies come from nature and return to it after death. Ancestors are therefore themselves tutelaries to be worshiped. And similarly, Native American beliefs such as Tonás, tutelary animal spirit among the Zapotec and Totems, familial or clan spirits among the Ojibwe, can be animals.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) in Austronesian beliefs such as: Atua (gods and spirits of the Polynesian peoples such as the Māori or the Hawaiians), Hanitu (Bunun of Taiwan‘s term for spirit), Hyang (Kawi, Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese Supreme Being, in ancient Java and Bali mythology and this spiritual entity, can be either divine or ancestral), Kaitiaki (New Zealand Māori term used for the concept of guardianship, for the sky, the sea, and the land), Kawas (mythology) (divided into 6 groups: gods, ancestors, souls of the living, spirits of living things, spirits of lifeless objects, and ghosts), Tiki (Māori mythology, Tiki is the first man created by either Tūmatauenga or Tāne and represents deified ancestors found in most Polynesian cultures). ” ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

Mesopotamian Tutelary Deities can be seen as ones related to City-States 

“Historical city-states included Sumerian cities such as Uruk and Ur; Ancient Egyptian city-states, such as Thebes and Memphis; the Phoenician cities (such as Tyre and Sidon); the five Philistine city-states; the Berber city-states of the Garamantes; the city-states of ancient Greece (the poleis such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth); the Roman Republic (which grew from a city-state into a vast empire); the Italian city-states from the Middle Ages to the early modern period, such as Florence, Siena, Ferrara, Milan (which as they grew in power began to dominate neighboring cities) and Genoa and Venice, which became powerful thalassocracies; the Mayan and other cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (including cities such as Chichen Itza, Tikal, Copán and Monte Albán); the central Asian cities along the Silk Road; the city-states of the Swahili coast; Ragusa; states of the medieval Russian lands such as Novgorod and Pskov; and many others.” ref

“The Uruk period (ca. 4000 to 3100 BCE; also known as Protoliterate period) of Mesopotamia, named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and the Sumerian civilization. City-States like Uruk and others had a patron tutelary City Deity along with a Priest-King.” ref

“Chinese folk religion, both past, and present, includes myriad tutelary deities. Exceptional individuals, highly cultivated sages, and prominent ancestors can be deified and honored after death. Lord Guan is the patron of military personnel and police, while Mazu is the patron of fishermen and sailors. Such as Tu Di Gong (Earth Deity) is the tutelary deity of a locality, and each individual locality has its own Earth Deity and Cheng Huang Gong (City God) is the guardian deity of an individual city, worshipped by local officials and locals since imperial times.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) in Hinduism, personal tutelary deities are known as ishta-devata, while family tutelary deities are known as Kuladevata. Gramadevata are guardian deities of villages. Devas can also be seen as tutelary. Shiva is the patron of yogis and renunciants. City goddesses include: Mumbadevi (Mumbai), Sachchika (Osian); Kuladevis include: Ambika (Porwad), and Mahalakshmi. In NorthEast India Meitei mythology and religion (Sanamahism) of Manipur, there are various types of tutelary deities, among which Lam Lais are the most predominant ones. Tibetan Buddhism has Yidam as a tutelary deity. Dakini is the patron of those who seek knowledge.” ref

“A tutelary (also tutelar) The Greeks also thought deities guarded specific places: for instance, Athena was the patron goddess of the city of Athens. Socrates spoke of hearing the voice of his personal spirit or daimonion:

You have often heard me speak of an oracle or sign which comes to me … . This sign I have had ever since I was a child. The sign is a voice which comes to me and always forbids me to do something which I am going to do, but never commands me to do anything, and this is what stands in the way of my being a politician.” ref

“Tutelary deities who guard and preserve a place or a person are fundamental to ancient Roman religion. The tutelary deity of a man was his Genius, that of a woman her Juno. In the Imperial era, the Genius of the Emperor was a focus of Imperial cult. An emperor might also adopt a major deity as his personal patron or tutelary, as Augustus did Apollo. Precedents for claiming the personal protection of a deity were established in the Republican era, when for instance the Roman dictator Sulla advertised the goddess Victory as his tutelary by holding public games (ludi) in her honor.” ref

“Each town or city had one or more tutelary deities, whose protection was considered particularly vital in time of war and siege. Rome itself was protected by a goddess whose name was to be kept ritually secret on pain of death (for a supposed case, see Quintus Valerius Soranus). The Capitoline Triad of Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva were also tutelaries of Rome. The Italic towns had their own tutelary deities. Juno often had this function, as at the Latin town of Lanuvium and the Etruscan city of Veii, and was often housed in an especially grand temple on the arx (citadel) or other prominent or central location. The tutelary deity of Praeneste was Fortuna, whose oracle was renowned.” ref

“The Roman ritual of evocatio was premised on the belief that a town could be made vulnerable to military defeat if the power of its tutelary deity were diverted outside the city, perhaps by the offer of superior cult at Rome. The depiction of some goddesses such as the Magna Mater (Great Mother, or Cybele) as “tower-crowned” represents their capacity to preserve the city. A town in the provinces might adopt a deity from within the Roman religious sphere to serve as its guardian, or syncretize its own tutelary with such; for instance, a community within the civitas of the Remi in Gaul adopted Apollo as its tutelary, and at the capital of the Remi (present-day Rheims), the tutelary was Mars Camulus.” ref

Household deity (a kind of or related to a Tutelary deity)

“A household deity is a deity or spirit that protects the home, looking after the entire household or certain key members. It has been a common belief in paganism as well as in folklore across many parts of the world. Household deities fit into two types; firstly, a specific deity – typically a goddess – often referred to as a hearth goddess or domestic goddess who is associated with the home and hearth, such as the ancient Greek Hestia.” ref

“The second type of household deities are those that are not one singular deity, but a type, or species of animistic deity, who usually have lesser powers than major deities. This type was common in the religions of antiquity, such as the Lares of ancient Roman religion, the Gashin of Korean shamanism, and Cofgodas of Anglo-Saxon paganism. These survived Christianisation as fairy-like creatures existing in folklore, such as the Anglo-Scottish Brownie and Slavic Domovoy.” ref

“Household deities were usually worshipped not in temples but in the home, where they would be represented by small idols (such as the teraphim of the Bible, often translated as “household gods” in Genesis 31:19 for example), amulets, paintings, or reliefs. They could also be found on domestic objects, such as cosmetic articles in the case of Tawaret. The more prosperous houses might have a small shrine to the household god(s); the lararium served this purpose in the case of the Romans. The gods would be treated as members of the family and invited to join in meals, or be given offerings of food and drink.” ref

“In many religions, both ancient and modern, a god would preside over the home. Certain species, or types, of household deities, existed. An example of this was the Roman Lares. Many European cultures retained house spirits into the modern period. Some examples of these include:

• Brownie (Scotland and England) or Hob (England) / Kobold (Germany) / Goblin / Hobgoblin
• Domovoy (Slavic)
• Nisse (Norwegian or Danish) / Tomte (Swedish) / Tonttu (Finnish)
• Húsvættir (Norse)” ref

“Although the cosmic status of household deities was not as lofty as that of the Twelve Olympians or the Aesir, they were also jealous of their dignity and also had to be appeased with shrines and offerings, however humble. Because of their immediacy they had arguably more influence on the day-to-day affairs of men than the remote gods did. Vestiges of their worship persisted long after Christianity and other major religions extirpated nearly every trace of the major pagan pantheons. Elements of the practice can be seen even today, with Christian accretions, where statues to various saints (such as St. Francis) protect gardens and grottos. Even the gargoyles found on older churches, could be viewed as guardians partitioning a sacred space.” ref

“For centuries, Christianity fought a mop-up war against these lingering minor pagan deities, but they proved tenacious. For example, Martin Luther‘s Tischreden have numerous – quite serious – references to dealing with kobolds. Eventually, rationalism and the Industrial Revolution threatened to erase most of these minor deities, until the advent of romantic nationalism rehabilitated them and embellished them into objects of literary curiosity in the 19th century. Since the 20th century this literature has been mined for characters for role-playing games, video games, and other fantasy personae, not infrequently invested with invented traits and hierarchies somewhat different from their mythological and folkloric roots.” ref

“In contradistinction to both Herbert Spencer and Edward Burnett Tylor, who defended theories of animistic origins of ancestor worship, Émile Durkheim saw its origin in totemism. In reality, this distinction is somewhat academic, since totemism may be regarded as a particularized manifestation of animism, and something of a synthesis of the two positions was attempted by Sigmund Freud. In Freud’s Totem and Taboo, both totem and taboo are outward expressions or manifestations of the same psychological tendency, a concept which is complementary to, or which rather reconciles, the apparent conflict. Freud preferred to emphasize the psychoanalytic implications of the reification of metaphysical forces, but with particular emphasis on its familial nature. This emphasis underscores, rather than weakens, the ancestral component.” ref

“William Edward Hearn, a noted classicist, and jurist, traced the origin of domestic deities from the earliest stages as an expression of animism, a belief system thought to have existed also in the neolithic, and the forerunner of Indo-European religion. In his analysis of the Indo-European household, in Chapter II “The House Spirit”, Section 1, he states:

The belief which guided the conduct of our forefathers was … the spirit rule of dead ancestors.” ref

“In Section 2 he proceeds to elaborate:

It is thus certain that the worship of deceased ancestors is a vera causa, and not a mere hypothesis. …

In the other European nations, the Slavs, the Teutons, and the Kelts, the House Spirit appears with no less distinctness. … [T]he existence of that worship does not admit of doubt. … The House Spirits had a multitude of other names which it is needless here to enumerate, but all of which are more or less expressive of their friendly relations with man. … In [England] … [h]e is the Brownie. … In Scotland this same Brownie is well known. He is usually described as attached to particular families, with whom he has been known to reside for centuries, threshing the corn, cleaning the house, and performing similar household tasks. His favorite gratification was milk and honey.” ref

Here is a Twitter conversation that inspired this blog: Link

Atheist commenter – “Bring back the Female gods” 

My response, I hear you, often better than the bigoty of male gods. lol

I see many of the women as gods as tutelary, “having the guardianship of a person or a thing.” ref

Atheist commenter – “They in my opinion are less likely to encourage neighbor conquest, probably why they died out.” 

My response, Yes. “A tutelary is a deity or a spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation. “Tutelary” expresses the concept of safety and thus of guardianship.” ref

Atheist commenter – “Thanks, I am not all that versed in history and only play on my personal experience/intuition.”

My response, There are some violent women goddesses but that is not the norm. Even the ones that have violent features are almost never limited to violence or war and have many other aspects of nonviolence. Such as “Inanna/Ishtar: goddess of love, war, fertility, beauty, sex, justice, & political power.” ref

Atheist commenter – “She seemed to mold to the current elite/ruling class. Like any god since to be fair.”

My response, All gods and goddesses can and were used to justify all kinds of violence just as now I say go godless and support real equality in deity-free atheism. 🙂

Atheist commenter – “I followed you for a while, I would be a hard atheist if I could prove a negative.”

My response, Logically you can prove a negative, but I think you mean evidentially prove a negative.

You Can Prove a Negative

List of War Deities

“A war god in mythology associated with war, combat, or bloodshed. They occur commonly in both monotheistic and polytheistic religions. Unlike most gods and goddesses in polytheistic religions, monotheistic deities have traditionally been portrayed in their mythologies as commanding war in order to spread religion. (The intimate connection between “holy war” and the “one true god” belief of monotheism has been noted by many scholars, including Jonathan Kirsch in his book God Against The Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism and Joseph Campbell in The Masks of God, Vol. 3: Occidental Mythology.)” ref

There are a total of 204 war deities listed with 58 goddesses and 146 gods.

I am making the 58 goddesses pink to better see them among the 146 gods.

Africa

North Africa

Berber

• Gurzil, bull-headed warrior god.
• Ifri, war goddess
• Sinifere, war god

Egyptian

• Anhur, god of war, not a native god
• Bast, cat-headed goddess associated with war, protection of Lower Egypt and the pharaoh, the sun, perfumes, ointments, and embalming
• Horus, god of the king, the sky, war, and protection
• Maahes, lion-headed god of war
• Menhit, goddess of war, “she who massacres”
• Montu, falcon-headed god of war, valor, and the Sun
• Neith, goddess of war, hunting, and wisdom
• Pakhet, goddess of war
• Satis, deification of the floods of the Nile River and an early war, hunting, and fertility goddess
• Sekhmet, goddess of warfare, pestilence, and the desert
• Set, god of the desert and storms, associated with war
• Sobek, god of the Nile, the army, military, fertility, and crocodiles
• Sopdu, god of the scorching heat of the summer sun, associated with war
• Wepwawet, wolf-god of war and death who later became associated with Anubis and the afterlife

Sub-Sahara Africa

Nubian

• Apedemak, Nubian lion-headed warrior god.

Western African-Congo

Yoruba

• Kokou
• Ogoun
• Oya goddess

Eastern African-Congo

Igbo

• Amadioha
• Ekwensu

Ethiopian

• Maher, god of war.

Kenya

Kalenjin

• Boryet, Kipsigis Death-wielding god of war. Boryet (also luket) is the act of war. Death (Me’et) is observed as a consequence of war. War is thus personified as such.

Europe

Balto-Slavic

Baltic

• Kara Māte, Latvian goddess of war
• Kauriraris, Lithuanian god of war and war steeds
• Junda, Lithuanian goddess of war

Slavic

• Jarovit, god of vegetation, fertility, and spring, also associated with war and harvest
• Perun, god of thunder and lightning, associated with war
• Svetovid, god of war, fertility, and abundance
• Zorya Utrennyaya, goddess of the morning star, sometimes depicted as a warrior goddess who protected men in battle

Celtic

• Agrona, reconstructed Proto-Celtic name for the river Aeron in Wales, and possibly the name of an associated war goddess
• Alaisiagae, a pair of goddesses worshiped in Roman Britain, with parallel Celtic and Germanic titles
• Andarta, Brittonic goddess theorized to be associated with victory, overcoming enemies, war
• Andraste, Gaulish warrior goddess
• Anann, Irish goddess of war, death, predicting death in battle, cattle, prosperity, and fertility
• Badb, Irish goddess of war who took the form of a crow; member of the Morrígan
• Bandua, Gallaecian God of War
• Belatucadros, war god worshipped by soldiers and equated with the Roman war god Mars
• Camulus, god of war of the Belgic Remi and British Trinovantes
• Catubodua, Gaulish goddess assumed to be associated with victory
• Cicolluis, Gaulish and Irish god associated with war
• Cocidius, Romano-British god associated with war, hunting and forests
• Macha, Irish goddess associated with war, horses, and sovereignty; member of the Morrígan
• The Morrígan, Irish triple goddess associated with sovereignty, prophecy, war, and death on the battlefield
• Neit, Irish god of war, husband of Nemain of Badb
• Nemain, Irish goddess of the frenzied havoc of war; member of the Morrígan
• Rudianos, Gaulish god of war
• Segomo, Gaulish god of war
• Teutates, British and Gaulish god of war and the tribe

Lusitanian

• Neto, god believed to be associated with war, death, and weaponry

Norse-Germanic

Continental Germanic

• Baduhenna, a western Frisii goddess of warfare
• Idis (Germanic)/itis/ides, female being, the West Germanic cognates of North Germanic dís, they are connected with battle magic and fettering enemy armies
• Sandraudiga, goddess whose name may mean “she who dyes the sand red”, suggesting she is a war deity or at least has a warrior aspect
• Týr, god of war, single combat, law, justice, and the thing, who later lost much of his religious importance and mythical role to the god Wōden
• Wōden, god associated with wisdom, poetry, war, victory, and death

Norse

• Dís, a group of lesser goddesses who are sometimes connected with battle magic; valkyrie may be a kenning for them
• Freyja, goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, gold, seiðr, war, and death
• Odin, god associated with wisdom, war, battle, and death
• Týr, god associated with law, justice, victory, and heroic glory
• Ullr, god associated with archery, skiing, bows, hunting, single combat, and glory
• Valkyries, choosers of the slain and connected to Odin, ruler of Valhalla; they may be the same as the dís above

Graeco-Roman

Greek / Hellenic

• Alala, spirit of the war cry
• Alke, spirit of courage and battle-strength
• Amphillogiai, goddesses of disputes
• Androktasiai, spirits of battlefield slaughter
• Ares, the main Greek god of war, despised by all the city-states except Sparta
• Athena, goddess of wisdom, war strategy, and weaving, more beloved by ancient Greeks than Ares and tutelary deity of Athens, Sparta’s rival
• Bia, spirit of force and compulsion
• Deimos, personification of terror
• Enyalius, god of war; in early periods apparently an epithet of Ares, they were differentiated later
• Enyo, goddess of war, sometimes appears to be identical to Eris
• Eris, goddess of discord and strife
• Hera, in the Illiad she has a martial character and fights (and wins) against Artemis; however, this warlike aspect of her appears nowhere else in the surviving corpus, suggesting it was dropped early on
• Homados, spirit of the din of battle
• Hysminai, female spirits of fighting and combat
• Ioke, spirit of onslaught, battle-tumult, and pursuit
• Keres, female spirits of violent or cruel death, including death in battle, by accident, murder, or ravaging disease
• Kratos, personification of strength and power
• Kydoimos, spirit of the din of battle
• Makhai, male spirits of fighting and combat
• Nike, spirit of victory
• Palioxis, spirit of backrush, flight, and retreat from battle
• Pallas, Titan god of war-craft and of the springtime campaign season
• Perses, the Titan of destruction
• Phobos, spirit of panic, fear, flight, and battlefield rout
• Phonoi, spirits of murder, killing, and slaughter
• Polemos, spirit of war
• Proioxis, spirit of onrush and battlefield pursuit

Roman

• Bellona, goddess of war
• Honos, god of chivalry, honor, and military justice
• Juno, has a consistent martial character and the patron goddess of Rome, the mother of Mars and Bellona
• Mars, god of war and agriculture, equivalent to Ares as far as being war gods; aside from this they have very little in common
• Minerva, goddess of wisdom, medicine, music, crafts, and war, while somewhat equivalent to the Greek Athena, the Romans did not emphasize her war aspect like the Greeks did
• Nerio, warrior goddess and personification of valor
• Victoria, personification of victory, equivalent to the Greek goddess Nike
• Virtus, god of bravery and military strength

Etruscan

• Laran, god of war.
• Menrva, goddess of war, art, wisdom, and health

Balkan

• Danubian Rider
• Sabazios
• Thracian Rider

Uralic

Hungarian

• Hadúr, god of war and the metalsmith of the gods

Asia

Turkic

• Kyzaghan, Turkic deity of war

Mongolian

• Begtse, originally a Mongolian war god, was later adopted into Tibetan Buddhism
• Dayisun Tngri

East Asia

Chinese

• Chiyou, god of war
• Di Qing, Star of Military Fortune, God of Valor
• Erlang Shen, a three-eyed warrior
• Guan Yu, Han dynasty general. God of loyalty, righteousness, and valor.
• Jinzha, marshal of the center altar
• Jiutian Xuannü, goddess of war, sex, and longevity
• Li Jing, Guardian of Celestial Palace
• Muzha, marshal of the center altar
• Nezha
• Wang Shan, Song dynasty general. Primordial Lord-General of Heaven. Guardian of Celestial Palace
• Wen Qiong 
• Yue Fei
• Zhao Lang (Zhao Gongming), God of Military Fortune, Guardian of Celestial Palace, Protector of Households
• Xue Rengui, Tang dynasty general.

Japanese

• Futsunushi, god of swords, martial arts, and conquest; god of the Mononobe clan
• Hachiman Daimyōjin, Shinto god of war (on land) and agriculture, divine protector of the Minamoto clan; mostly worshiped by samurai
• Sarutahiko, god of war and misogi; the deity who stands at the junction of Heaven and Earth; one of the main Kunitsukami; actively worshipped by Ueshiba Morihei
• Takemikazuchi, god of war, conquest, martial arts, sumo, and lightning; general of the Amatsukami; god of Kashima and Ujigami of Nakatomi clan
• Suwa Myōjin (Takeminakata-no-kami), god of valor and duty, protector of the Japanese religion
• Bishamonten, Buddhist god of war

Korean

• Yi Sun-sin, admiral of Joseon Dynasty. god of military, guardian of sea.
• Choe Yeong, general of Goryeo period, god of shamans, protector of humanity.
• Pagunseong, the star at the edge of the Big Dipper in Taoism, symbolizing swords.
• Baekmashinjang, god of war who rides a white horse.
• Dungapshinjang, god of war who has the ability of shapeshifting.
• Byeorakshinjang, god of war who uses thunder and lightning, sometimes punishes the evil.
• Damuncheonwang, Buddhist god of war.

Southeast Asia

Filipino

• Chacha’: the Bontok god of warriors
• Hipag: the Ifugao spirits of war that give soldiers courage on the field of war but are ferocious and cannibalistic
• Apolaqui: the Pangasinense war god
• Aring Sinukûan: the Kapampangan solar deity governing war and death. He taught early humans metallurgy, woodcutting, rice cultivation, and warfare
• Apolake: the Tagalog god of the sun and warriors
• Sidapa: another Tagalog god of war, he specifically settles conflicts among mortals
• Doce Pares: From the Spanish “Twelve Pairs”, they are a group of twelve young Tagalog men who went on a quest to retrieve the Golden Calf of Mount Banahaw, together with José Rizal as a culture hero. They are said to return as giants, bearing the Golden Calf, to aid mankind in war.
• Balangaw: a Hiligaynon and Bisaya god of the rainbow and war
• Inaginid: a Hiligaynon and Bisaya god of war.
• Makanduk: a Hiligaynon and Bisaya god of war.
• Lumalayag: the Tagbanwa spirits who challenge and fight the Salakap, spirits of plague and sickness.
• Talagbusao: the bloodthirsty Bukidnon god of war.
• Pamdiya: the Manobo gods who initiate and preside over war.
• Darago: the Bagobo god of warriors, whose consort is Mandarangan.
• Mandarangan: the Bagobo war deity married to Darago and resides at the top of Mount Apo. Human sacrifices made to him are rewarded with health, valour in war, and success in the pursuit of wealth.

Vietnamese

• Cao Lỗ, god of military innovations
• Độc Cước, the protector of coastal settlements. Legend has it that he split himself in two with his axe, each half guards coastal villages against sea ogres.
• Thần Đồng Cổ, the armored protector of the Lý dynasty
• Thánh Gióng, god of triumph over foreign invaders

South Asia

Hindu-Vedic-and-non-Vedic

• Kartikeya, god of war and victory
• Mangala, god of war and Mars
• Nirrti, goddess of strife
• Parvati, her forms Durga and Kali are known for fighting demons
• Shiva, god of destruction, time, and arts. several of his avatars are gods of destroying evil and avenging
• Vishnu, god of protection. Several of his avatars are associated with fighting and vanquishing evil.
• Indra, god of the weather, kingship, thunder, rains, electricity and the senses. He is also the king of Heaven.

Manipuri

• Marjing, god of war, polo, horse and sports.
• Panthoibi, goddess of war, love, courage and longevity.

West Asia

Armenian

• Anahit, goddess of healing, fertility, wisdom, and water; in early periods associated with war

Canaanite

• Anat, goddess of war
• Astarte, goddess of sex and war, western Semitic version of the Mesopotamian Ishtar and Inanna
• Resheph, god of plague and war
• Tanit, main Carthaginian goddess whose functions included war and the moon

Hebrew

• Yahweh, originally a warrior god

Hittite

• Wurrukatte, god of war

Hurrian

• Aštabi, a war god of Eblaite origin
• Nupatik, a god assumed to have warlike character
• Shaushka, goddess of love, war, and healing
• Ugur, a war god of Mesopotamian origin

Mesopotamian

• Adad, a weather god often portrayed as a warrior
• Erra, a god of war associated with Nergal, later syncretised with him
• Inanna, Sumerian goddess of love, sex and war
• Ishtar, Assyrian, Akkadian, and Babylonian counterpart of Inanna
• Nergal, god of war, the underworld, and pestilence
• Ninazu, a god of the underworld who could also be portrayed as a war deity
• Ningishzida, a god of the underworld who like his father Ninazu could be portrayed as a warrior
• Ninurta, warrior god
• Pabilsag, warrior god and husband of Ninisina
• Pap-nigin-gara, a war god syncretised with Ninurta
• Sebitti, group of minor Akkadian and Babylonian war gods
• Shara, minor Sumerian god of war
• Tishpak, a warrior god from Eshnunna
• Zababa, tutelary god of Kish and a war god

Nuristani

• Great Gish, god of war

Oceania

Polynesia

• ‘Oro, god of war
• Rongo, Mangaian god of war and taro

Hawaiian

• Kū, god of war and birds
• Pele, goddess of fire, lightning, dance, volcanoes, and violence

Māori

• Maru, god of war and fresh water
• Tūmatauenga, god of war and human activities

Americas

North America

Great Plains

• Morning Star, O-pi-ri-kus by one spelling; the god of war in Pawnee mythology

Pacific Northwest

• Qamaits, Nuxálk warrior goddess
• Winalagalis, Kwakwaka’wakw god of war

Central American and the Caribbean

Aztec

• Patterns of War
• Huitzilopochtli, god of will, patron of war, fire, and sun; lord of the south
  • Mixcoatl, god of war and hunting
  • Tlaloc, god of thunder, rain, and earthquakes
  • Xipe-Totec, god of force, patron of war, agriculture, vegetation, diseases, seasons, rebirth, hunting, trades, and spring; lord of the east
  • Xiuhtecuhtli, god of fire

Mayan

• Tohil, god associated with fire, the sun, rain, mountains, and war

Voodoo

• Ogoun, loa who presides over fire, iron, hunting, politics, and war

ref

I fully enjoy the value (axiology) of archaeology (empirical evidence from fact or artifacts at a site) is knowledge (epistemology) of the past, adding to our anthropology (evidence from cultures both the present and past) intellectual (rational) assumptions of the likely reality of actual events from time past.

I like learning prehistory!

I also hate: “Pseudo-science, Pseudo-history, and Pseudo-morality.”

So yeah, history is fun, but one must weed through the sometimes added mythology, half-truths, or outright lies. This is even more important when reading religion-related information.