“The Great Spirt and the Evil one Native American (Navajo): the Fathers of All Fathers. The Supreme Being. The Father of the Holy People. The Great Spirit. (watches us by light like sun light or moon light) = Sky Father creator and maker to all things, corn pollen prayer are offered, sacred stone offering to, protect us by the light of the sun. The Great Spirit is a common reference among many Native American Tribes.” ref, ref

There are three types of the Great Spirit thinking (to me):

  1. Great Spirit (animistic type): “Great Mystery” likely no referred gender.
  2. Great Spirit (totemistic/shamanistic type): “Great Spirit” is likely not fully seen as a god/goddess-type spirit, it could be an animal but may have male or female gender.
  3. Great Spirit (paganistic type): “Great/High God” likely a male gender commonly related to the sun or blue/clear sky.

The Great Spirit

“The Great Spirit” is the English translation of the name of the creator god in many Native American traditions, particularly Algonquian and Siouan tribes. Since Algonquian tribes were the first Native American cultures encountered by English speakers, “Great Spirit” became a common term referring to Native American creator deities in general, and was also frequently used as the word for “God” in translations of Christian texts into Native American languages. Indeed, many Native American people consider the Great Spirit and the Christian God to be one and the same. Other Native American people are less receptive to this idea, believing that today’s notion of the Great Spirit was mostly constructed by missionaries. The truth is probably somewhere in the middle– many Native American tribal traditions definitely did include some form of the Great Spirit in their creation myths and religious rituals, but some tribes never had such traditions until after colonization. And in other tribes, while there had always been the belief in a Great Spirit or Great Mystery that provided order to the spiritual world, this belief system became significantly altered after contact with Christianity, and modern conceptions of the Native American Great Spirit may not be a very accurate representation of the original Native spirituality.” ref 

“Makunaima: High God, Creator, “God” or “Great Spirit” but not personified. Tribal affiliation: Akawaio, Pemon, Macusi, Carib. Related figures in other tribes: Kururumany (Arawak). The Sun, the Frog, and the Fire-Sticks: A Guyanese Carib legend about Makunaima and his twin brother Pia.” ref 

Raweno: High god, Creator, Great Spirit

“Raweno is the great creator god of the Mohawk and Huron tribes. The name “Raweno” comes from words meaning “great voice” or “great ruler” in the Iroquois languages.” ref 

Saya: creator god

“Saya is the benevolent culture hero of the Beaver tribe, a heroic monster-slayer, and friend to mankind, though there are some Beaver stories about him that are humorous in nature.” ref

Beaver Legends, Myths and Stories

“Beaver tribe (also known as the Dane-zaa, Dunne-za, or Danezaa,) the traditional stories of related tribes like the Sekani and Chipewyan are very similar.” ref

High God, in anthropology and the history of religion, a type of supreme deity found among many nonliterate peoples of North and South America, Africa, northern Asia, and Australia. The adjective high is primarily a locative term: a High God is conceived as being utterly transcendent, removed from the world that he created. A High God is high in the sense that he lives in or is identified with the sky—hence, the alternative name. Among North American Indians and Central and South Africans, thunder is thought to be the voice of the High God. In Siberia the sun and moon are considered the High God’s eyes. He is connected with food and heaven among American Indians.” ref

“Though the pattern varies from people to people, the High God usually is conceived as masculine or sexless. He is thought to be the sole creator of heaven and earth. Although he is omnipotent and omniscient, he is thought to have withdrawn from his creation and therefore to be inaccessible to prayer or sacrifice. Generally, no graphic images of him exist, nor does he receive cult worship or appear in the mythology. If he is invoked, it is only in times of extreme distress, but there is no guarantee that he will hear or respond. His name often is revealed only to initiates, and to speak his name aloud is thought to invite disaster or death; his most frequent title is Father. In some traditions he is conceived to be a transcendent principle of divine order; in others he is pictured as senile or impotent and replaced by a set of more active and involved deities; and in still other traditions he has become so remote that he is all but forgotten.” ref

“In comparative mythology, sky father is a term for a recurring concept in polytheistic religions of a sky god who is addressed as a “father”, often the father of a pantheon and is often either a reigning or former King of the Gods. The concept of “sky father” may also be taken to include Sun gods with similar characteristics, such as Ra. The concept is complementary to an “earth mother. “Sky Father” is a direct translation of the Vedic Dyaus Pita, etymologically descended from the same Proto-Indo-European deity name as the Greek Zeûs Pater and Roman Jupiter, all of which are reflexes of the same Proto-Indo-European deity’s name, *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr. While there are numerous parallels adduced from outside of Indo-European mythology, there are exceptions (e.g. In Egyptian mythology, Nut is the sky mother and Geb is the earth father).” ref

“The sky often has important religious significance. Many religions, both polytheistic and monotheistic, have deities associated with the sky. The daytime sky deities are typically distinct from the nighttime ones. Stith Thompson‘s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature reflects this by separating the category of “Sky-god” (A210) from that of “Star-god” (A250). In mythology, nighttime gods are usually known as night deities and gods of stars simply as star gods. Both of these categories are included here since they relate to the sky. Luminary deities are included as well since the sun and moon are located in the sky. Some religions may also have a deity or personification of the day, distinct from the god of the day lit sky, to complement the deity or personification of the night.” ref

“Daytime gods (blue sky) and nighttime (dark sky) gods are frequently deities of an “upper world” or “celestial world” as opposed to the earth and a “netherworld” (gods of the underworld are sometimes called “chthonic” deities). Within Greek mythology, Uranus was the primordial sky god, who was ultimately succeeded by Zeus, who ruled the celestial realm atop Mount Olympus. In contrast to the celestial Olympians was the chthonic deity Hades, who ruled the underworld, and Poseidon, who ruled the sea. Any masculine sky god is often also king of the gods, taking the position of patriarch within a pantheon. Such king gods are collectively categorized as “sky father” deities, with a polarity between sky and earth often being expressed by pairing a “sky father” god with an “earth mother” goddess (pairings of a sky mother with an earth father are less frequent).” ref

“A main sky goddess is often the queen of the gods and may be an air/sky goddess in her own right, though she usually has other functions as well with “sky” not being her main. In antiquity, several sky goddesses in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Near East were called Queen of Heaven. Gods may rule the sky as a pair (for example, ancient Semitic supreme god El and the fertility goddess Asherah whom he was most likely paired with). The following is a list of sky deities in various polytheistic traditions arranged mostly by language family, which is typically a better indicator of relatedness than geography.” ref

El (deity), El (/ɛl/ EL; also Il, Ugaritic: 𐎛𐎍 ʾīlu; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤋 ʾīl;  Hebrew: אֵל ʾēl; Syriac: ܐܺܝܠ ʾīyl; Arabic: إل ʾil or إله ʾilāh; cognate to Akkadian: 𒀭, romanized: ilu) is a Northwest Semitic word meaning ‘god’ or ‘deity‘, or referring (as a proper name) to any one of multiple major ancient Near Eastern deities. A rarer form, ila, represents the predicate form in the Old Akkadian and Amorite languages. The word is derived from the Proto-Semitic *ʔil-Specific deities known as El, Al, or Il include the supreme god of the ancient Canaanite religion and the supreme god of East Semitic speakers in Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia. Among the Hittites, El was known as Elkunirsa (Hittite: 𒂖𒆪𒉌𒅕𒊭 Elkunīrša). Although El gained different appearances and meanings in different languages over time, it continues to exist as -il or -el in compound proper noun phrases such as Ishmael, Israel, Samuel, Daniel, Raphael, Michael, and Gabriel.” ref

Cognate forms of El are found throughout the Semitic languages. They include Ugaritic ʾilu, pl. ʾlmPhoenician ʾl pl. ʾlmHebrew ʾēl, pl. ʾēlîmAramaic ʾlAkkadian ilu, pl. ilānuIn northwest Semitic use, ʼel was a generic word for any god as well as the special name or title of a particular god who was distinguished from other gods as being “the god.” El is listed at the head of many pantheons. In some Canaanite and Ugaritic sources, El played a role as father of the gods, of creation, or both. However, because the word el sometimes refers to a god other than the great god El, it is frequently ambiguous as to whether El followed by another name means the great god El with a particular epithet applied or refers to another god entirely. For example, in the Ugaritic texts, ʾil mlk is understood to mean “El the King” but ʾil hd as “the god Hadad.” ref

“The Semitic root ʾlh (Arabic ʾilāh, Aramaic ʾAlāh, ʾElāh, Hebrew ʾelōah) may be ʾl with a parasitic h, and ʾl may be an abbreviated form of ʾlh. In Ugaritic the plural form meaning “gods” is ʾilhm, equivalent to Hebrew ʾelōhîm “powers”. In the Hebrew texts this word is interpreted as being semantically singular for “god” by biblical commentators. However, according to the documentary hypothesis, at least four different authors – the Jahwist (J), Elohist (E), Deuteronomist (D), and Priestly (P) sources – were responsible for editing stories from a polytheistic religion into those of a monotheistic religion. These sources were joined together at various points in time by a series of editors or “redactors.” Inconsistencies that arise between monotheism and polytheism in the texts are reflective of this hypothesis. The stem ʾl is found prominently in the earliest strata of east Semitic, northwest Semitic, and south Semitic groups. Personal names including the stem ʾl are found with similar patterns in both the Amorite and Sabaic languages.” ref

“The Hebrew form (אל) appears in Latin letters in Standard Hebrew transcription as El and in Tiberian Hebrew transcription as ʾĒl. ʼel is a generic word for god that could be used for any god, including Hadad, Moloch, or Yahweh. In the Tanakh, elōhîm is the normal word for a god or the great God (or gods, given that the ‘im’ suffix makes a word plural in Hebrew). But the form El also appears, mostly in poetic passages and in the patriarchal narratives attributed to the Priestly source of the documentary hypothesis. It occurs 217 times in the Masoretic Text: seventy-three times in the Psalms and fifty-five times in the Book of Job, and otherwise mostly in poetic passages or passages written in elevated prose. It occasionally appears with the definite article as hā’Ēl ‘the god’ (for example in 2 Samuel 22:31,33–48).” ref

“The theological position of the Tanakh is that the names ʼĒl and Ĕlōhîm, when used in the singular to mean the supreme god, refer to Yahweh, beside whom other gods are supposed to be either nonexistent or insignificant. Whether this was a long-standing belief or a relatively new one has long been the subject of inconclusive scholarly debate about the prehistory of the sources of the Tanakh and about the prehistory of Israelite religion. In the P strand, Exodus 6:3 may be translated:

I revealed myself to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob as El Shaddai, but was not known to them by my name, YHWH.” ref

“However, it is said in Genesis 14:18–20 that Abraham accepted the blessing of El, when Melchizedek, the king of Salem and high priest of its deity El Elyon blessed him. One scholarly position is that the identification of Yahweh with El is late, that Yahweh was earlier thought of as only one of many gods, and not normally identified with El. Another is that in much of the Hebrew Bible, the name El is an alternative name for Yahweh, but in the Elohist and Priestly traditions it is considered an earlier name than Yahweh. Mark Smith has argued that Yahweh and El were originally separate, but were considered synonymous from very early on. The name Yahweh is used in Genesis 2:4, while Genesis 4:26 says that at that time, people began to “call upon the name of the LORD”. El’s title of “El Shadday“, which envisions him as the “god of the steppe”, may also derive from the cultural beliefs of Upper Mesopotamian (i.e. Amurru) immigrants, who were ancestors of the Israelites.” ref

“In some places, especially in Psalm 29, Yahweh is clearly envisioned as a storm god, something not true of El so far as scholars know (although true of his son, Ba’al Haddad). It is Yahweh who is prophesied to one day battle Leviathan the serpent, and slay the dragon in the sea in Isaiah 27:1. The slaying of the serpent in myth is a deed attributed to both Ba’al Hadad and ‘Anat in the Ugaritic texts, but not to El. But some scholars argue that “El Shadday” reflects a conception of El as a storm god. Such mythological motifs are variously seen as late survivals from a period when Yahweh held a place in theology comparable to that of Hadad at Ugarit; or as late henotheistic/monotheistic applications to Yahweh of deeds more commonly attributed to Hadad; or simply as examples of eclectic application of the same motifs and imagery to various different gods.” ref

“Similarly, it is argued inconclusively whether Ēl Shaddāi, Ēl ‘Ôlām, Ēl ‘Elyôn, and so forth, were originally understood as separate divinities. Albrecht Alt presented his theories on the original differences of such gods in Der Gott der Väter in 1929. But others have argued that from patriarchal times, these different names were generally understood to refer to the same single great god, El. This is the position of Frank Moore Cross (1973). What is certain is that the form ‘El does appear in Israelite names from every period including the name Yiśrā’ēl (“Israel”), meaning “El strives.” ref

“According to The Oxford Companion to World Mythology,

It seems almost certain that the God of the Jews evolved gradually from the Canaanite El, who was in all likelihood the “God of Abraham” … If El was the high God of Abraham—Elohim, the prototype of Yahveh—Asherah was his wife, and there are archaeological indications that she was perceived as such before she was in effect “divorced” in the context of emerging Judaism of the 7th century BCE. (See 2 Kings 23:15.)” ref

“The apparent plural form Ēlîm or Ēlim “gods” occurs only four times in the Tanakh. Psalm 29, understood as an enthronement psalm, begins:

A Psalm of David.
Ascribe to Yahweh, sons of Gods (bênê ‘Ēlîm),
Ascribe to Yahweh, glory and strength” ref

Psalm 89:6 (verse 7 in Hebrew) has:

For who in the skies compares to Yahweh,
who can be likened to Yahweh among the sons of Gods (bênê ‘Ēlîm).” ref

“Traditionally bênê ‘ēlîm has been interpreted as ‘sons of the mighty’, ‘mighty ones’, for El can mean ‘mighty’, though such use may be metaphorical (compare the English expression [by] God awful). It is possible also that the expression ēlîm in both places descends from an archaic stock phrase in which lm was a singular form with the m-enclitic and therefore to be translated as ‘sons of El’. The m-enclitic appears elsewhere in the Tanakh and in other Semitic languages. Its meaning is unknown, possibly simply emphasis. It appears in similar contexts in Ugaritic texts where the expression bn ‘il alternates with bn ‘ilm, but both must mean ‘sons of El’. That phrase with m-enclitic also appears in Phoenician inscriptions as late as the fifth century BCE.” ref

“One of the other two occurrences in the Tanakh is in the “Song of Moses“, Exodus 15:11a:

Who is like you among the Gods (ēlim), Yahweh?” ref

“The final occurrence is in Daniel 11:36:

And the king will do according to his pleasure; and he will exalt himself and magnify himself over every god (ēl), and against the God of Gods (El ‘Elîm) he will speak outrageous things, and will prosper until the indignation is accomplished: for that which is decided will be done.” ref

“There are a few cases in the Tanakh where some think El is not equated with Yahweh. One example is found in Ezekiel 28:2, in the taunt against a man who claims to be divine, in this instance, the leader of Tyre:

Son of man, say to the prince of Tyre: “Thus says the Lord Yahweh: ‘Because your heart is proud and you have said: “I am ēl (god), in the seat of elōhîm (gods), I am enthroned in the middle of the seas.” Yet you are man and not El even though you have made your heart like the heart of elōhîm (‘gods’).” ref

“Here ēl might refer to a generic god, or to a highest god, El. When viewed as applying to the King of Tyre specifically, the king was probably not thinking of Yahweh. When viewed as a general taunt against anyone making divine claims, it may or may not refer to Yahweh depending on the context. In Judges 9:46 we find Ēl Bêrît ‘God of the Covenant’, seemingly the same as the Ba’al Bêrît ‘Lord of the Covenant’ whose worship has been condemned a few verses earlier. See Baal for a discussion of this passage.” ref

Psalm 82:1 says:

elōhîm (“god”) stands in the council of ēl
he judges among the gods (Elohim).” ref

“This could mean that Yahweh judges along with many other gods as one of the council of the high god El. However it can also mean that Yahweh stands in the Divine Council (generally known as the Council of El), as El judging among the other members of the council. The following verses in which the god condemns those whom he says were previously named gods (Elohim) and sons of the Most High suggest the god here is in fact El judging the lesser gods.” ref

“An archaic phrase appears in Isaiah 14:13, kôkkêbê ‘ēl ‘stars of God’, referring to the circumpolar stars that never set, possibly especially to the seven stars of Ursa Major. The phrase also occurs in the Pyrgi Inscription as hkkbm ‘l (preceded by the definite article h and followed by the m-enclitic). Two other apparent fossilized expressions are arzê-‘ēl ‘cedars of God’ (generally translated something like ‘mighty cedars’, ‘goodly cedars’) in Psalm 80:10 (in Hebrew verse 11) and kêharrê-‘ēl ‘mountains of God’ (generally translated something like ‘great mountains’, ‘mighty mountains’) in Psalm 36:7 (in Hebrew verse 6).” ref

“For the reference in some texts of Deuteronomy 32:8 to seventy sons of God corresponding to the seventy sons of El in the Ugaritic texts, see `Elyôn. It has been argued that in the supposed original version of Deuteronomy 32, as preserved in the Septuagint and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Yahweh was described as a son of El, although some scholars disagree with this view. That said, there are verses where El and Yahweh are unambiguously conflated (Numbers 23:8) but some scholars believe this is an attempt to portray El as a warrior god, as Israelite society grew and evolved into a nation-state.” ref

“In addition, Michael Heiser states that texts that were contemporaneously produced with the Book of Deuteronomy (e.g. the 8th century text of Isaiah 10:13) already credit the deeds of El to Yahweh and that separating El and Yahweh is ‘internally inconsistent’ within the Book of Deuteronomy (e.g. Deuteronomy 4:19–20, Deuteronomy 32:6–7). According to Heiser, it also raises the question on why the Deuteronomists would be so careless to introduce this error, especially a few verses later, and why they didn’t quickly remove them as ‘intolerant monotheists’.” ref

Yahwism, as it is called by modern scholars, was the religion of ancient Israel and Judah. An ancient Semitic religion of the Iron Age, Yahwism was essentially polytheistic and had a pantheon, with various gods and goddesses being worshipped by the Israelites. At the head of this pantheon was Yahweh, held in an especially high regard as the two Israelite kingdoms’ national god. Some scholars hold that the goddess Asherah was worshipped as Yahweh’s consort, though other scholars disagree. Following this duo were second-tier gods and goddesses, such as Baal, Shamash, Yarikh, Mot, and Astarte, each of whom had their own priests and prophets and numbered royalty among their devotees. The practices of Yahwism included festivals, ritual sacrifices, vow-making, private rituals, and the religious adjudication of legal disputes. For most of its history, the Temple in Jerusalem was not the sole or central place of worship dedicated to Yahweh, with many locations throughout Israel, Judah, and Samaria. However, it was still significant to the Israelite king, who effectively led the national religion as the national god’s worldly viceroy.” ref

“Yahwism underwent several redevelopments and recontextualizations as the notion of divinities aside from or comparable to Yahweh was gradually degraded by new religious currents and ideas. Possibly beginning with the hypothesized United Kingdom of Israel, the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah had a joint religious tradition comprising cultic worship of Yahweh. Later theological changes concerning the evolution of Yahweh’s status initially remained largely confined to small groups, only spreading to the population at large during the general political turbulence of the 7th and 6th centuries BCE. By the end of the Babylonian captivity, Yahwism began turning away from polytheism (or, by some accounts, Yahweh-centric monolatry) and transitioned towards monotheism, where Yahweh was proclaimed as the creator deity and the only entity worthy of worship. Following the end of the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent establishment of Yehud Medinata in the 4th century BCE, Yahwism coalesced into what is known as Second Temple Judaism, from which the modern ethnic religions of Judaism and Samaritanism, as well as the Abrahamic religions of Christianity and Islam, would later emerge.” ref

Philo of Byblos (c. 64–141 AD) was a Greek writer whose account Sanchuniathon survives in quotation by Eusebius and may contain the major surviving traces of Phoenician mythology. El (rendered Elus or called by his standard Greek counterpart Cronus) is not the creator god or first god. El is rather the son of Sky (Uranus) and Earth (Ge). Sky and Earth are themselves children of ‘Elyôn ‘Most High’. El is brother to the God Bethel, to Dagon and to an unknown god, equated with the Greek Atlas and to the goddesses Aphrodite/‘Ashtart, Rhea (presumably Asherah), and Dione (equated with Ba’alat Gebal). El is the father of Persephone and of Athena (presumably the goddess ‘Anat).” ref

“Sky and Earth have separated from one another in hostility, but Sky insists on continuing to force himself on Earth and attempts to destroy the children born of such unions. At last, with the advice of his daughter Athena and the god Hermes Trismegistus (perhaps Thoth), El successfully attacks his father Sky with a sickle and spear of iron. He and his military allies the Eloim gain Sky’s kingdom. In a later passage it is explained that El castrated Sky. One of Sky’s concubines (who was given to El’s brother Dagon) was already pregnant by Sky. The son who is born of the union, called Demarûs or Zeus, but once called Adodus, is obviously Hadad, the Ba’al of the Ugaritic texts who now becomes an ally of his grandfather Sky and begins to make war on El.” ref

“El has three wives, his sisters or half-sisters Aphrodite/Astarte (‘Ashtart), Rhea (presumably Asherah), and Dione (identified by Sanchuniathon with Ba’alat Gebal the tutelary goddess of Byblos, a city which Sanchuniathon says that El founded). El is depicted primarily as a warrior; in Ugaritic sources Baal has the warrior role and El is peaceful, and it may be that the Sanchuniathon depicts an earlier tradition that was more preserved in the southern regions of Canaan. Eusebius, through whom the Sanchuniathon is preserved, is not interested in setting the work forth completely or in order. But we are told that El slew his own son Sadidus (a name that some commentators think might be a corruption of Shaddai, one of the epithets of the Biblical El) and that El also beheaded one of his daughters.” ref

“Later, perhaps referring to this same death of Sadidus we are told:

But on the occurrence of a pestilence and mortality Cronus offers his only begotten son as a whole burnt-offering to his father Sky and circumcises himself, compelling his allies also to do the same.” ref

“A fuller account of the sacrifice appears later:

It was a custom of the ancients in great crises of danger for the rulers of a city or nation, in order to avert the common ruin, to give up the most beloved of their children for sacrifice as a ransom to the avenging daemons; and those who were thus given up were sacrificed with mystic rites. Cronus then, whom the Phoenicians call Elus, who was king of the country and subsequently, after his decease, was deified as the star Saturn, had by a nymph of the country named Anobret an only begotten son, whom they on this account called Iedud, the only begotten being still so called among the Phoenicians; and when very great dangers from war had beset the country, he arrayed his son in royal apparel, and prepared an altar, and sacrificed him.” ref

“The account also relates that Thoth:

also devised for Cronus as insignia of royalty four eyes in front and behind … but two of them quietly closed, and upon his shoulders four wings, two as spread for flying, and two as folded. And the symbol meant that Cronus could see when asleep, and sleep while waking: and similarly in the case of the wings, that he flew while at rest, and was at rest when flying. But to each of the other gods he gave two wings upon the shoulders, as meaning that they accompanied Cronus in his flight. And to Cronus himself again he gave two wings upon his head, one representing the all-ruling mind, and one sensation.” ref

“This is the form under which El/Cronus appears on coins from Byblos from the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BCE) four spread wings and two folded wings, leaning on a staff. Such images continued to appear on coins until after the time of Augustus. A bilingual inscription from Palmyra dated to the 1st century equates El-Creator-of-the-Earth with the Greek god Poseidon. Going back to the 8th century BCE, the bilingual inscription at Karatepe in the Taurus Mountains equates El-Creator-of-the-Earth to Luwian hieroglyphs read as da-a-ś, this being the Luwian form of the name of the Babylonian water god Ea, lord of the abyss of water under the earth. (This inscription lists El in second place in the local pantheon, following Ba’al Shamîm and preceding the Eternal Sun.)” ref

Earth Mother, in ancient and modern nonliterate religions, an eternally fruitful source of everything. Unlike the variety of female fertility deities called mother goddesses (q.v.), the Earth Mother is not a specific source of vitality who must periodically undergo sexual intercourse. She is simply the mother; there is nothing separate from her. All things come from her, return to her, and are her. The most archaic form of the Earth Mother transcends all specificity and sexuality. She simply produces everything, inexhaustibly, from herself. She may manifest herself in any form. In other mythological systems she becomes a more limited figure. She becomes the feminine Earth, consort of the masculine sky; she is fertilized by the sky in the beginning and brings forth terrestrial creation. Even more limited reflections of the Earth Mother occur in those agricultural traditions in which she is simply the Earth and its fertility.” ref

“Earth Mother,” “Mother Earth,” or a mother goddess is a major goddess characterized as a mother or progenitor, either as an embodiment of motherhood and fertility or fulfilling the cosmological role of a creator- and/or destroyer-figure, typically associated the Earth, sky, and/or the life-giving bounties thereof in a maternal relation with humanity or other gods. When equated in this lattermost function with the earth or the natural world, such goddesses are sometimes referred to as the Mother Earth or Earth Mother, deity in various animistic or pantheistic religions. The earth goddess is archetypally the wife or feminine counterpart of the Sky Father or Father Heaven, particularly in theologies derived from the Proto-Indo-European sphere (i.e. from Dheghom and Dyeus). In some polytheistic cultures, such as the Ancient Egyptian religion which narrates the cosmic egg myth, the sky is instead seen as the Heavenly Mother or Sky Mother as in Nut and Hathor, and the earth god is regarded as the male, paternal, and terrestrial partner, as in Osiris or Geb who hatched out of the maternal cosmic egg.” ref

In Egyptian mythology, sky goddess Nut is sometimes called “Mother” because she bore stars and Sun god. Nut was thought to draw the dead into her star-filled sky, and refresh them with food and wine. In Kongo religion, the Sky Mother, Nzambici, was the female counterpart of the Sky Father and Solar god, Nzambi Mpungu. Originally, they were seen as one spirit with one half male and the other half female. After the introduction of Christianity to Central Africa, the description of Nzambi changed to Creator God and Nzambici to his wife, “God the essence, the god on earth, the great princess, the mother of all the animals, and the mystery of the Earth.ref

“In Hinduism, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Radha, Parvati, Durga and other goddesses represents both the feminine aspect and the shakti (power) of the supreme being known as the Brahman. The divine mother goddess, manifests herself in various forms, representing the universal creative force. She becomes Mother Nature (Mula Prakriti), who gives birth to all life forms and nourishes them through her body. Ultimately she re-absorbs all life forms back into herself, or “devours” them to sustain herself as the power of death feeding on life to produce new life. She also gives rise to Maya (the illusory world) and to prakriti, the force that galvanizes the divine ground of existence into self-projection as the cosmos.ref

“The Shakti sect is strongly associated with Samkhya, and Tantra Hindu philosophies and ultimately, is monist. The primordial feminine creative-preservative-destructive energy, Shakti, is considered to be the motive force behind all action and existence in the phenomenal cosmos. The cosmos itself is purusha, the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality that is the divine ground of all being, the “world soul”. This masculine potential is actualized by feminine dynamism, embodied in multitudinous goddesses who are ultimately all manifestations of the one great mother. Shakti, herself, can free the individual from demons of ego, ignorance, and desire that bind the soul in maya (illusion). Practitioners of the Tantric tradition focus on Shakti to free themselves from the cycle of karma. The worship of the mother deity can be traced back to early Vedic culture. The Rigveda calls the divine female power Mahimata (R.V. 1.164.33) which means “great mother.ref

“Atíʼas Tirawa, which means “Our Father Above” in the Pawnee language (often translated, inaccurately, as “Great Spirit”), was the creator god. Another variant, perhaps most used, is Tirawahat.  He was believed to have taught the Pawnee people tattooing, fire-building, hunting, agriculture, speech and clothing, religious rituals (including the use of tobacco and sacred bundles), and sacrifices. He was associated with most natural phenomena, including stars and planets, wind, lightning, rain, and thunder. The wife of Tirawa was Atira, goddess of the Earth. Atira (literally, Mother Corn) was associated with corn.” ref

“The male Morning Star in the East was believed to be created first. Being the war god he wore the dress of a warrior. After him came the female Evening Star in the West. She resisted the divine plan to create humankind. Morning Star had to fight and overcome a number of forces in the western sky with his fireball to finally mate with her. The first human being thus created was a girl. Six major stars represented other gods controlled by Tirawahut. Two of them were the female Southwest and Northwest Stars. The male stars were the North, the Northeast, the Southeast and the South Stars.” ref

“Some had specific tasks to fulfill:

  • The North Star was the son of South Star. He watched over the people and had to keep his post.
  • Northeast Star (or Big Black Meteoric Star) controlled the animals, in particular the bison. He was also in charge of the shift from day to night. According to some Skidis, this unidentified and enigmatic star was a buffalo bull carrying the heaven on his back. The mythology of the South Bands does not mention this god at all and only a number of the other star gods.
  • Southeast Star (or Red Star) regulated the coming of day and had authority among the animals.
  • South Star rose sometimes on the heaven to see if his son (North Star) remained on his fixed position. South Star ruled in the land of the dead. He received no prayers and no ceremony was held in his name. Paths in the Milky Way guided the dead human beings to his dominion.” ref

“The Thunder, the Lightning, the Cloud and the Wind were four great powers in the west. They obeyed the Evening Star. By means of constant song they generated the Earth on which the first girl (the child of Evening and Morning Stars) was placed. The solar and lunar deities were Shakuru and Pah, respectively. They were the last of all gods placed in the heavens. Their offspring was a boy, and he was put on Earth, too. Aside from this, the Sun and the Moon are of relatively minor standing in the Skidi Pawnee mythology.” ref

Meteorites brought good fortune to the finders. They were seen as the children of Tirawahut sent down to Earth. While the Skidi Pawnee relied a great deal on the powers and the aid of stars and other objects in cosmos, the South Bands came through foremost by the assistance and advice of a number of animals. Yet, the gods in heaven existed, and the animals acted as go-betweens when they instructed and guided the South Bands.” ref

“The White Beaver ceremony of the Chawi served nearly the same purpose as the renewing or restarting Spring Awakening ceremony (Thunder ceremony) of the Skidi. However hibernating animals were revitalized through this rite rather than the renewal of corn crops. Tirawa conferred miraculous powers on certain animals. These spirit animals, the nahurac, would act as Tirawa’s messengers and servants, and could intercede with him on behalf of the Pawnee.” ref

“The nahurac had five dwellings or lodges:

“The Pawnee seasonal rituals were tied to the observation of the stars and planets. Their earthwork lodges were built at the same time as observatories and as “microcosm” (scale-model of the universe). Each lodge “was at the same time the universe and also the womb of a woman, and the household activities represented her reproductive powers.” The lodge also represented the universe in a more practical way. The physical construction of the house required setting up four posts to represent the four cardinal directions, “aligned almost exactly with the north–south, east–west axis.”  A Pawnee observatory-lodge also required an unobstructed view of the eastern sky. The lodge’s axis would be oriented east–west in such a way that the sunrise of vernal equinox would cast light on the altar. The dimensions of the lodge’s smoke hole and door would be designed to allow observation of the sky, e.g. with the smoke-hole aligned to enable observation of the Pleiades.” ref

“According to one Skidi-band Pawnee man at the beginning of the twentieth century, “The Skidi were organized by the stars; these powers above made them into families and villages, and taught them how to live and how to perform their ceremonies. The shrines of the four leading villages were given by the four leading stars and represent those stars which guide and rule the people.” ref

“Regular ceremonies were performed before major events, such as semi-annual buffalo hunts. Kawaha, an often-besought god of good luck, was closely connected to buffalo hunts. Many other important activities of the year were started with a ceremony, such as sowing seeds in the spring and harvesting in the fall.” ref

“The most important ceremony of the Pawnee culture, the Spring Awakening ceremony, was meant to awaken the earth and ready it for planting. It can be tied to celestial observation, held at the time when the priest first tracked “two small twinkling stars known as the Swimming Ducks in the northeastern horizon near the Milky Way.” and then heard a rolling thunder from the West. (For the role of Thunder in the Creation myth).” ref

1. Tlingit language, “spoken by the Tlingit people of Southeast Alaska and Western Canada, and is a branch of the Na-Dene language familyDené–Yeniseian languages, suggesting that the Na-Dene languages (Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit) might be related to the Yeniseian (or Yeniseic) languages of Siberia, the only living representative of which is the Ket language. Dene–Yeniseian is a proposed language family consisting of the Yeniseian languages of central Siberia and the Na-Dene languages of northwestern North America.” ref, ref, ref

Ket People/Yeniseian people: Kets are a Yeniseian-speaking people in Siberia. In the image of the High god Esi (sky god/great spirit/sky father), they personified the sky and connected to it nature’s phenomenon. In traditional culture, there is a combination of walking fishermen and taiga hunters with cultural elements such as the use of dugouts, food storage, fur coats, composed footwear, the Earth cult, animals, etc. For Southern Siberia and Central Asian nomadic people, common elements are their hut, tunic clothes, blacksmith trade, shamanism, etc. The Kets kept their traditional beliefs and cults that were formed on the basis of early mythological ideas about the world. The Kets are shamanistic people. They never had professional shamans though. The main function of shamans was to cure and predict. In the image of the High god Esi (sky god), they personified the sky and connected to it nature’s phenomenon. The Mistress of the North opposed him and the bearer of evil, Khocedem, was believed to send troubles, curses, plagues, and sicknesses. The South Mistress, named Tomem, was personified in the image of migrant birds. They had a cult of fire, family guardian spirits, and spirit-masters. Also, they had Alels, the guardians of home and family who were pictured in the forms of female figures.” ref, ref 

The Yeniseians appear closely related to other Siberians, East Asians, and Native Americans. They display a high frequency of paternal haplogroup Q-M242. Q-M242 is the predominant Y-DNA haplogroup among Native Americans and several peoples of Central Asia and Northern Siberia. Frequency distribution of haplogroup Q-M242: Kets 93.8%, Indigenous peoples of South America 92%, Inuit 80%, Turkmens from Karakalpakstan (mainly Yomut) 73%, Selkups 66.4%. Altaians 63.6%., Tuvans (from Xinjiang) 62.5%., Chelkans 60.0%., Greenlandic Inuit 54%, Tubalar 41%, Siberian Tatars (Ishtyak-Tokuz Tatars) 38%, the indigenous peoples of the Americas, Akha people of northern Thailand, Mon-Khmer people and some tribes of Assam. Q-M242 is believed to have arisen around the Altai Mountains area (or South Central Siberia), approximately 17,000 to 31,700 years ago.” ref, ref

In the indigenous people of North America, Q-M242 is found in Na-Dené speakers at an average rate of 68%. The highest frequency is 92.3% in Navajo, followed by 78.1% in Apache, 87% in SC Apache, and about 80% in North American Eskimo (Inuit, Yupik)–Aleut populations. (Q-M3 occupies 46% among Q in North America). On the other hand, a 4000-year-old Saqqaq individual belonging to Q1a-MEH2* has been found in Greenland. Surprisingly, he turned out to be genetically more closely related to Far East Siberians, such as Koryaks and Chukchi people rather than Native Americans. Today, the frequency of Q runs at 53.7% (122/227: 70 Q-NWT01, 52 Q-M3) in Greenland, showing the highest in east Sermersooq at 82% and the lowest in Qeqqata at 30%.” ref

“Several branches of haplogroup Q-M242 have been predominant pre-Columbian male lineages in indigenous peoples of the Americas. Most of them are descendants of the major founding groups who migrated from Asia into the Americas by crossing the Bering Strait. These small groups of founders must have included men from the Q-M346, Q-L54, Q-Z780, and Q-M3 lineages. In North America, two other Q-lineages also have been found. These are Q-P89.1 (under Q-MEH2) and Q-NWT01. They may not have been from the Beringia Crossings but instead came from later immigrants who traveled along the shoreline of Far East Asia and then the Americas using boats. It is unclear whether the current frequency of Q-M242 lineages represents their frequency at the time of immigration or is the result of the shifts in a small founder population over time. Regardless, Q-M242 came to dominate the paternal lineages in the Americas.” ref

“According to a 2016 study, the Ket and other Yeniseian people originated likely somewhere near the Altai Mountains or near Lake Baikal. It is suggested that parts of the Altaians are predominantly of Yeniseian origin and closely related to the Ket people. The Ket people are also closely related to several Native American groups. According to this study, the Yeniseians are linked to the Paleo-Eskimo groups. And haplogroup Q-M242 has been found in approximately 94% of Indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and South America. Q-M242 originated in Asia (Altai region), and is widely distributed across it. In Siberia, the regions between Altai and Lake Baikal, which are famous for many prehistoric cultures and as the most likely birthplace of haplogroup Q, exhibit high frequencies of Q-M242. Q-M242 is found in RussiaSiberia (Kets, SelkupsSiberian Yupik peopleNivkhsChukchi people, YukaghirsTuvans, Altai people, KoryaksMongolia, China, Uyghurs, Tibet, KoreaJapanIndonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, India, Pakistan, AfghanistanIran, IraqSaudi ArabiaTurkmenistanUzbekistan, and so on.” ref

“The ancestors of Yeniseian peoples may have been related to the Syalakh culture of ancient Yakutia. Yeniseian people, specifically Ket, also show high amounts of affinity towards Tuvans and other peoples of Siberia, suggesting that Yeniseian ancestry can be linked to Paleo-Siberians, which replaced previous Upper-Paleolithic Siberians (Ancient North Eurasian) as the dominant population, and were subsequently largely assimilated by Neo-Siberians from Northeast Asia. Ancient Yeniseian speakers can be associated with a Late Neolithic/Bronze Age ancestry in the Baikal area (Cisbaikal_LNBA or Baikal_EBA) maximized among hunter-gatherers of the local Glazkovo culture. They can be differentiated from the earlier ‘Early Neolithic Baikal hunter-gatherers’ associated with the Kitoi and Fofonovo cultures (Baikal_EN) and later Amur-derived (DevilsCave_N-like) groups.ref

“Cisbaikal_LNBA ancestry is inferred to be rich in Ancient Paleo-Siberian ancestry, and also display affinity to Inner Northeast Asian (Yumin-like) groups. This type of ancestry has also been observed among Eastern Scythians (Saka) and made up nearly all of the ancestry (85-95%) from an outlier sample of the Karasuk culture (RISE497). Cisbaikal_LNBA ancestry later spread together with Glazkovo-type pottery to the forest zone of the Middle Angara, correlating with the supposed dispersal of Yeniseian languages, supporting a homeland in the Cis-Baikal region. Cisbaikal_LNBA has also been found at low amounts among Athabaskan speakers, lending support to the Dene-Yeniseian hypothesis. According to some researchers, the Yeniseian people are a result of reverse migration (from America to Asia). While modern-day Kets are derived from a Cisbaikal_LNBA-like source, they also display significant amounts of geneflow from Uralic-affiliated (Yakutia_LNBA) sources.ref

2. Numic languages, Uto-Aztecan languages, “which include seven languages spoken by Native American peoples traditionally living in the Great BasinColorado River basin, Snake River basin, and southern Great Plains. Numic: * Central Numic languages: Comanche, Timbisha (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Western, Central, and Eastern). Shoshoni (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Western, Gosiute, Northern, and Eastern) * Southern Numic languages: Kawaiisu, Colorado River (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Chemehuevi, Southern Paiute, and Ute). * Western Numic languages: Mono (two main dialects: Eastern and Western), Northern Paiute (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Southern Nevada, Northern Nevada, Oregon, and Bannock).” ref

“Apart from Comanche, each of these groups contains one language spoken in a small area in the southern Sierra Nevada and valleys to the east (Mono, Timbisha, and Kawaiisu), and one language spoken in a much larger area extending to the north and east (Northern Paiute, Shoshoni, and Colorado River). Some linguists have taken this pattern as an indication that Numic speaking peoples expanded quite recently from a small core, perhaps near the Owens Valley, into their current range. This view is supported by lexicostatistical studies.” ref 

“Fowler’s reconstruction of Proto-Numic ethnobiology also points to the region of the southern Sierra Nevada as the homeland of Proto-Numic approximately two millennia ago. A mitochondrial DNA study from 2001 supports this linguistic hypothesis. The anthropologist Peter N. Jones thinks this evidence to be of a circumstantial nature, but this is a distinctly minority opinion among specialists in Numic. David Shaul has proposed that the Southern Numic languages spread eastward long before the Central and Western Numic languages expanded into the Great Basin.” ref

“Shoshoni is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, spoken in the Western United States.” ref

“The Shoshone call their creator god “Tam Apo” which translates as “Our Father.” Some tribes represent the Supreme Being as an animal, most often a wolf, having human thought and speech.” ref

3. Algonquian languages/From Algic languages, “Algonquian languages include: Arapahoan, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, CreeMontagnaisNaskapi, Eastern Algonquian, Menominee, Meskwaki-Sauk-Kickapoo, Miami-Illinois, OjibwePotawatomi, and Shawnee. The Algonquian languages are a family of Indigenous languages of the Americas, and most of the languages in the Algic language family are included in the group. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically similar Algonquin dialect of the Indigenous Ojibwe language (Chippewa), which is a senior member of the Algonquian language family. Speakers of Algonquian languages stretch from the east coast of North America to the Rocky Mountains. The proto-language from which all of the languages of the family descend, Proto-Algonquian, was spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago. The essence of Proto-Algonquian originated with people to the west who then moved east. There is no scholarly consensus about where this language was spoken.” ref

“Amerindian male descendants whose yDNA places them in haplogroup Q-Y4294 and downstream subclades. Algonquian and Haudenosaunee populations found in North America from the Great Lakes east to the Atlantic coast, and southward from the Maritime Provinces and the Gulf of Maine, to the Carolina’s. The study has expanded in geography and time with definition of Q-Y4294 to include southeastern North America. Q-Y4294 formed approximately 11,800 years ago in the Paleo Period. It is estimated that the population in New England 10,000 years ago was no more than 25,000. The Archaic is the second oldest Amerindian life-way across the North American continent. They were wandering hunter-gatherers. Their settlements were movable camps. Their possessions were few and portable. Ice-age flora and fauna were gone. These ancestors were surrounded by plants and animals that exist today. Northeastern regional variant cultures first emerged across the Great Lakes and along the Northeast coast about 8,000 years ago in the early Archaic Period.” ref

“There is strong evidence of cultural continuity over much of the Northeast. Human settlement was concentrated on rivers and coasts. Ancient populations in the Northeast were stable with the lands carrying capacity. 500 Threshold
Modeling simulations show that human breeding populations below 500 are too unstable to survive. This means that Archaic bands with as few as a dozen people had to collectively have an aggregate collection of nearby bands as they filled the landscape. Sizes of local populations were determined by the carrying capacity of the environment. It is foolish to assign cultural ties to yDNA haplogroup clades with so few data or perhaps ever. We can say that to date all study participants belonging to the subclade of Q-Y4294 currently defined as Q-Y4300 descend from Algonquian speakers located on the Atlantic coast at the time of European contact. The most recent common ancestor of Q-Y4300 is currently calculated to approximately 4,500 years ago. Eastern North America became an independent center of plant domestication in a span either side of this date. The Eastern Woodland Period began at about 4,000 years ago.” ref

“For context, this is about the time the Biblical era began. Proto-Algonquian language began about 3,000 years ago. STRs found at DYS464 are diagnostic for potential members Q-Y4300. Y4300 appears at this time to represent a northerly group that diverged from the original population. Remnants of which remained in the SE. Members of that population (Haudenoaunee) at a much later time migrated north. Iroquois Intrusion The origin of Northern Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) is controversial though linguists tell us that their closest relations are Cherokee of the southern Appalachian Mountains. Proto-Iroquois began migrating north by 650 CE. It is believed the Iroquois population rose from a population of perhaps 100 during the Medieval Maximum. The Medieval maximum was a long term warm spell lasting 300 years, from c. 950 to c. 1250 CE. The Iroquois expanded and spread northward to central Pennsylvania, into New York west of the Hudson River, and eventually the full length of the St. Lawrence River Valley and around the eastern Great Lakes. This northerly expansion formed wedge dividing Algonquians into eastern and western populations.” ref

“The Algic languages (also Algonquian–Wiyot–Yurok or Algonquian–Ritwan) are an indigenous language family of North America. Most Algic languages belong to the Algonquian subfamily, dispersed over a broad area from the Rocky Mountains to Atlantic Canada. The other Algic languages are the Yurok and Wiyot of northwestern California, which, despite their geographic proximity, are not closely related. All these languages descend from Proto-Algic, a second-order proto-language estimated to have been spoken about 7,000 years ago and reconstructed using the reconstructed Proto-Algonquian language and the Wiyot and Yurok languages.” ref

4. Southern Athabascan/Dené–Yeniseian, Na-Dené, Athabaskan–Eyak, Athabaska, Southern Athabascan. Eyak is not an Athabaskan language, but a coordinate sub-branch to Athabaskan as a whole in the Athabaskan-Eyak branch of the Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit language family.” ref, ref 

Southern Athabaskan (also Apachean) is a subfamily of Athabaskan languages spoken primarily in the Southwestern United States (including ArizonaNew MexicoColorado, and Utah) with two outliers in Oklahoma and Texas. The languages are spoken in the northern Mexican states of SonoraChihuahuaCoahuila and to a much lesser degree in Durango and Nuevo León. Those languages are spoken by various groups of Apache and Navajo peoples. Elsewhere, Athabaskan is spoken by many indigenous groups of peoples in Alaska, Canada, Oregon and northern California. The seven Southern Athabaskan languages can be divided into two groups according to the classification of Harry Hoijer: (I) Plains and (II) Southwestern. Plains Apache is the only member of the Plains Apache group. The Southwestern group can be further divided into two subgroups (A) Western and (B) Eastern. The Western subgroup consists of Western ApacheNavajoMescalero, and Chiricahua. The Eastern subgroup consists of Jicarilla and Lipan.” ref

5. Iroquoian languages/”possibly related to Caddoan languages, the Iroquoian languages are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-markingAs of 2020, almost all surviving Iroquoian languages are severely or critically endangered, with some languages having only a few elderly speakers remaining. The two languages with the most speakers, Mohawk (Kenien’kéha) in New York and Canada, and Cherokee in Oklahoma and North Carolina, are spoken by less than 10% of the populations of their nations.” ref

“The Iroquois, also known as the Five Nations, and later as the Six Nations from 1722 onwards; alternatively referred to by the endonym Haudenosaunee (/ˌhdɪnˈʃni/ HOH-din-oh-SHOH-nee; lit.people who are building the longhouse) are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of Native Americans and First Nations peoples in northeast North America. They were known by the French during the colonial years as the Iroquois League, and later as the Iroquois Confederacy, while the English simply called them the “Five Nations”. The peoples of the Iroquois included (from east to west) the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. After 1722, the Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora people from the southeast were accepted into the confederacy, from which point it was known as the “Six Nations.” ref

“The Confederacy likely came about between the years 1450 CE and 1660 CE as a result of the Great Law of Peace, said to have been composed by the Deganawidah the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha, and Jigonsaseh the Mother of Nations. For nearly 200 years, the Six Nations/Haudenosaunee Confederacy were a powerful factor in North American colonial policy, with some scholars arguing for the concept of the Middle Ground, in that European powers were used by the Iroquois just as much as Europeans used them. At its peak around 1700, Iroquois power extended from what is today New York State, north into present-day Ontario and Quebec along the lower Great Lakesupper St. Lawrence, and south on both sides of the Allegheny mountains into present-day Virginia and Kentucky and into the Ohio Valley. The St. Lawrence Iroquoians, Wendat (Huron), Erie, and Susquehannock, all independent peoples known to the European colonists, also spoke Iroquoian languages. They are considered Iroquoian in a larger cultural sense, all being descended from the Proto-Iroquoian people and language. Historically, however, they were competitors and enemies of the Iroquois Confederacy nations.” ref

The Caddoan languages are a family of languages native to the Great Plains spoken by tribal groups of the central United States, from present-day North Dakota south to Oklahoma. Caddo, Northern Caddoan, Wichita , Pawnee–Kitsai, Kitsai, Pawnee–Arikara, Pawnee, and Arikara. Proto-Caddoan, it appeared to have divided into two branches, Northern and Southern, more than 3000 years ago (The division of the language implies also a geographic and/or political separation). South Caddoan, or Caddo proper, evolved in north-eastern Texas and adjacent Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Other than Caddo, no daughter languages are known, but some unrecorded ones likely existed in the 16th and the 17th centuries. Northern Caddoan evolved into several different languages. The language that became Wichita, with several different dialects, branched off about 2000 years ago. Kitsai separated from the Northern Caddoan stem about 1200 years ago, and Pawnee and Arikara separated 300 to 500 years ago.” ref

“Proto-Iroquoian is the theoretical proto-language of the Iroquoian languagesLounsbury (1961) estimated from glottochronology a time depth of 3,500 to 3,800 years for the split of North and South Iroquoian. These tribes included the Huron and Neutral in modern-day Ontario, first encountered by French explorers and traders; the Five Nations of the Iroquois League in Upstate New York and Pennsylvania, and the Erie Nation and Susquehannock peoples in Pennsylvania. Southern speakers of Iroquoian languages ranged from the Cherokee in the Great Smoky Mountains, to the Tuscarora and Nottoway in the interior near the modern Virginia/North Carolina border. The Iroquoian languages are usually divided into two main groups: Southern Iroquoian (Cherokee) and Northern Iroquoian (all others) based on the great differences in vocabulary and modern phonology.ref

Attempts to link the Iroquoian, Siouan, and Caddoan languages in a Macro-Siouan family are suggestive but remain unproven (Mithun 1999:305). The Macro-Siouan languages are a proposed language family that includes the SiouanIroquoian, and Caddoan families. Most linguists remain unconvinced that these languages share a genetic relationship, and the existence of a Macro-Siouan language family remains a subject of debate.” ref, ref

6. Lakota language/Siouan language, Lakota (Lakȟótiyapi [laˈkˣɔtɪjapɪ]), also referred to as LakhotaTeton, or Teton Sioux, is a Siouan language spoken by the Lakota people of the Sioux tribes. Lakota is mutually intelligible with the two dialects of the Dakota language, especially Western Dakota, and is one of the three major varieties of the Sioux language. Siouan (/ˈsən/ SOO-ən) or Siouan–Catawban is a language family of North America that is located primarily in the Great PlainsOhio, and Mississippi valleys and southeastern North America with a few other languages in the east.” ref, ref

“The Lakota people‘s creation stories say that language originated from the creation of the tribe. Other creation stories say the language was invented by IktomiIn Lakota mythology, Iktómi is a spidertrickster spirit, and a culture hero for the Lakota people. Alternate names for Iktómi include Ikto, Ictinike, Inktomi, Unktome, and Unktomi. These names are due to the differences in languages between different indigenous nations, as this spider deity was known throughout many of North America’s tribes. His appearance is that of a spider, but he can take any shape, including that of a human. When he is a human, he is said to wear red, yellow, and white paint, with black rings around his eyes. The Spider, although most tales involve the trickster figure and center on morality lessons for the young, Iktómi was also the bringer of Lakota culture.ref, ref

“According to author James Walker, Iktómi has his roots in Ksa, the god of wisdom: “Because Ksa had used his wisdom to cause a goddess to hide her face in shame and a god to bow his head in grief, Scan, the god of motion condemned him that he should sit at the feasts of gods no more and should sit on the world without a friend, and his wisdom should be only cunning that would entrap him in his own schemes. He named him Iktómi. So Iktómi is the imp of mischief whose delight is to make others ridiculous” .The Oglala of south Dakota present Iktómi as the second manifestation, or degeneration, of Ksa, which hatched from the Cosmic Egg being laid by Wak-Inyan, the primordial thunderstorm. Ksa invented language, stories, names and games. In another version Iya is the son of Unk (defined as passion), who detested Ksa. Iya and Unk had an incestious relationship out of which Gnaski, the demon, was the result. Because of this, and for not taking the advice of Ksa, Unk was expelled from the circle of divine entities.” ref

“Unk wanted to outwit Ksa with the help of the cunning of Gnaski. Gnaski succeeds in this, mainly because he has no fear of Skan (the Judge, Activity), by sowing confusion. Gnaski enabled this by mimicking Ksa to perfection; therefore, Gnaski is called Ksapela (little wisdom). The first people were not able to distinguish between the two. Through his folly Gnaski entangles Ksa completely, and through the activity of Skan Ksa consequently becomes a spider, the meaning of the name Iktómi. Iktómi still had the feature of making games. It seems that Iktómi, in stories attributed to him, in his very essence is representing the confusion between wisdom and folly. He began playing malicious tricks because people would jeer at his strange or funny looks. Most of his schemes end with him falling into ruin when his intricate plans backfire.” ref

“Because it is Iktómi, a respected (or perhaps feared) deity playing the part of the idiot or fool, and the story is told as entertainment, the listener is allowed to reflect on misdeeds without feeling like they are being confronted. In other tales, Iktómi is depicted with dignity and seriousness, such as in the popularized myth of the dreamcatcher. Iktómi is a shapeshifter, and can use strings to control humans like puppets. He has also the power to make potions that change gods, gain control over people and trick gods and mortals. Mica or Coyote is his great accomplice in all of this, though there are times when he behaves seriously and comes to the aid of the Lakota people, there are instances where he gives the people ways to protect themselves from evil, live a better life with technology, or warn them of danger.” ref

Iktomi (also known as Unktomi) is a trickster figure of the lore of the Lakota Sioux nation similar to tricksters of other nations, such as Wihio of the Cheyenne, Nanabozho (Manabozho) of the Ojibwe, Coyote of the Navajo, or Glooscap of the Algonquin. As a trickster, he may cause harm or good but always brings transformation. Iktomi sometimes appears as a spider, sometimes as a man (a Sioux hunter, warrior, or sage), and is variously known as Ictinike, Ikto, Unktome, and most famously Unktomi by the different bands of the Sioux. Iktomi tales were, and still are, among the most popular Sioux legends as they are always entertaining while also providing an important cultural, religious, or common-sense moral. In this, they share ground with trickster tales of any culture, ancient or modern, around the world as trickster figures in general often drive the narrative of some of the most engaging texts, as with Loki in Norse mythologyHermes in Greek mythology, or Reynard the Fox in European medieval folklore, among many others.” ref

7. Pawnee language/Caddoan languages, The Pawnee language is a Caddoan language traditionally spoken by Pawnee Native Americans, currently inhabiting north-central Oklahoma. Historically, the Pawnee lived along the Platte River in what is now Nebraska. The Pawnee language: Caddoan, Northern, Pawnee–Kitsai, Pawnee–Arikara, Pawnee.” ref

Sky Father/Sky Chief Mythology: Great Spirit, Great Mystery, and Great Father

Haa Shageinyaa – Tlingit – Great Spirit

Wakan Tanka – Lakota – Great Spirit

Manitou – Algonquian – Great Spirit

Orenda – Iroquoian – Great Spirit

Tirawa Atius /Atius Tirawa – Pawnee – Great Spirit

Tam Apo – Shoshoni – Great Spirit (Numic division of the Uto-Aztecan language family)

Yahwera – Kahniina – Great Spirit? (Numic division of the Uto-Aztecan language family)

Gichi-manidoo/ Gichi-ojichaag – Apache

Naayéé /Tsohanoai – Navajo

“Most indigenous cultures of the Americas possess a notion of a Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka to the Lakota and Sioux for example. Wakan Tanka, or by other names – MaheuOrendaUtakke, or the Sky-Chief, appears in many Native American stories, legends, and creation myths; e.g., the Great Spirit existed in great emptiness until loneliness drove him to creation in one myth. Native American religions also tend to see the spiritual in everyday life and have an intimate connection with the wildlife and animals that they encounter and harvest.” ref

Native American Legends: Caddi Ayo (Sky Chief Above)

“Caddi Ayo means “Sky Chief” or “Chief Above” in the Caddo language, and is the Caddo name for the Creator (God.) Sometimes, the Plains Indian term “Great Spirit” is also used. Caddi Ayo is a divine spirit and is not generally personified in Caddo folklore.” ref

Name: Caddi Ayo, Tribal affiliation: Caddo, Alternate spellings: Ayo-Caddi-Aymay, Ayamat Caddi, Ayanat Caddi, Ah-ah Ha’-yo, Pronunciation: kah-dee ah-yoh. Also known as: Chief Above, Great Father Above, Sky Chief, Great Spirit. Type: High godscreator godsspirits of the skyRelated figures in other tribes: Nishanu (Arikara), Tirawa (Pawnee), Gitchie Manitou (Chippewa).ref

The Caddo Confederacy was a network of Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, who historically inhabited much of what is now northeast Texas, west Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, and southeastern Oklahoma. Prior to European contact, they were the Caddoan Mississippian culture, who constructed huge earthwork mounds at several sites in this territory, flourishing from about 800 to 1400 CE.” ref

The Caddo are thought to be an extension of Woodland period peoples, the Fourche Maline and Mossy Grove cultures, whose members were living in the area of Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas areas between 200 BCE and 800 CE. The Wichita and Pawnee are also related to the Caddo, since both tribes historically spoke Caddoan languages. By 800 CE, this society had begun to coalesce into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers. Leaders directed the construction of major earthworks known as platform mounds, which served as temple mounds and platforms for residences of the elite. The flat-topped mounds were arranged around leveled, large, open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family lineages gained prominence over others.ref

“By 1000 CE, a society that is defined by archaeologists as “Caddoan” had emerged. By 1200, the many villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had developed extensive maize agriculture, producing a surplus that allowed for greater density of settlement. In these villages, artisans and craftsmen developed specialties. The artistic skills and earthwork mound-building of the Caddoan Mississippians flourished during the 12th and 13th centuries. The Spiro Mounds, near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma, were some of the most elaborate mounds in the United States. They were made by Mississippian ancestors of the historic Caddo and Wichita tribes, in what is considered the westernmost area of the mound-building Mississippian culture. The Caddo were farmers and enjoyed good growing conditions most of the time. The Piney Woods, the geographic area where they lived, was affected by the Great Drought from 1276 to 1299 CE, which covered an area extending to present-day California and disrupted many Native American cultures.ref

“Archeological evidence has confirmed that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present among these peoples. The Caddoan Mississippian people were the direct ancestors of the historic Caddo people and related Caddo-language speakers, such as the Pawnee and Wichita, who encountered the first Europeans, as well as of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma. The Caddo creation story, as told in their oral history, says the tribe emerged from a cave, called Chahkanina or “the place of crying,” located at the confluence of the Red River of the South and Mississippi River (in northern present-day Louisiana). Their leader, named Moon, instructed the people not to look back. An old Caddo man carried a drum, a pipe, and fire, all of which have continued to be important religious items to the people. His wife carried corn and pumpkin seeds. As people and accompanying animals emerged, the wolf looked back. The exit from the underground was closed to the remaining people and animals.ref

“The Caddo peoples moved west along the Red River, which they called Bah’hatteno in Caddo. A Caddo woman, Zacado, instructed the tribe in hunting, fishing, building dwellings, and making clothing. Caddo religion focuses on Kadhi háyuh, translating to “Leader Above” or “Leader in the Sky.” In early times, the people were led by priests, including a head priest, the xinesi, who could commune with spirits residing near Caddo temples. A cycle of ceremonies developed around important periods of seasonal corn cultivation. Tobacco was also cultivated, and was and is used ceremonially. Early priests drank a purifying sacrament drink made of wild olive leaves. Centuries before extensive European contact, some of the Caddo territory was invaded by migrating Dhegihan Siouan–speaking peoples: the Osage, Ponca, Omaha, Quapaw, and Kaw. They moved west beginning about 1200 CE after years of warfare with the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) nations in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky. The powerful Iroquois took control of hunting grounds in the area.ref

“The Osage, in particular, fought the Caddo, pushed them out of some former territory, and became dominant in the region of present-day Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Kansas. These tribes had become settled in their new territory west of the Mississippi prior to mid-18th-century European contact. Most of the Caddo historically lived in the Piney Woods ecoregion of the United States, divided among the state regions of East Texas, southern Arkansas, western Louisiana, and southeastern Oklahoma. This region extends up to the foothills of the Ozarks. The Piney Woods are a dense forest of deciduous and pinophyta flora covering rolling hills, steep river valleys, and intermittent wetlands called “bayous“. Caddo people primarily settled near the Caddo River.ref

“When they first encountered Europeans and Africans, the Caddo tribes organized themselves in three confederacies: the Natchitoches, Hasinai, and Kadohadacho. They were loosely affiliated with other neighboring tribes, including the Yowani Choctaw. The Natchitoches lived in now northern Louisiana, the Haisinai lived in East Texas, and the Kadohadacho lived near the border of Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The Caddo people had a diet based on cultivated crops, particularly maize (corn), but also sunflower, pumpkins, and squash. These foods held cultural significance, as did wild turkeys. They hunted and gathered wild plants, as well. The Caddo Native Americans had a culture that consisted of the hunting and gathering dynamic. The men hunted year-round, while the young and healthy women were responsible for the gathering of fruits, seeds, and vegetables for the tribe. Elderly women planted and cultivated the seeds for the season’s crop. Gathered items included corn, sunflowers, beans, melons, tobacco, and squash during the warm seasons. Acorns and roots were gathered and processed to provide food other than meat in the cold seasons when crops did not grow.ref

“The men used handcrafted bows and arrows to hunt animals such as wild turkey, quail, rabbits, bears, and bison during winter months. Most tools and items were made by women. They made wooden mortars, as well as pots and other utensils out of clay. These wood and clay tools were carved and molded to help with daily jobs like cooking meals for the tribe. These tools were viewed with such reverence that men and women were buried with the items that they had made. The Caddo also decorated their bodies. Men favored body modifications and ornamentation, such as the painting of skin, jewelry, ear piercing, and hair decorations, like braids, adorned with bird feathers or animal fur. While the women of the tribe wore some jewelry and styled their hair similarly to men, most used the art of tattooing to decorate their bodies. Such tattoos covered most of the body, including the face.ref

Native American Sky Gods and Spirits

*The Above People (Blackfoot)
Morning Star (many tribes)
*Old-Man-Sky (Carib)
Sky Chief (Caddo)
Sky-Holder (Iroquois)
Sky Woman (Iroquois)
*The Star-Boy (Blackfoot)
*The Thunder-Bird (Plains and Western tribes)
*Thunderer (Sioux)
*Thunders (Iroquois)
Utakké (Carrier)

Sky Chief of the Pawnee tribe

“Among the Pawnee chiefs at this time was Sky Chief. Sky Chief had taken over for his father, one of the great Pawnee Chiefs, who by this time was old and infirm, and was no longer able to lead the annual buffalo hunt to Southwestern Nebraska. Sky Chief had begun to make a name for himself among the Pawnee. He was a leading advocate of the “Accommodation” treaty with the U.S. Army. Under this treaty, the Pawnee supplied scouts for the Army, and guards for the transcontinental railroad, which at the time was pushing west across the prairie. In return, and most importantly for the Pawnee, the Army provided protection to the Pawnee Nation against their Indian enemies. The summer buffalo hunt was the high point in the year for the Pawnee. The 1873 hunt was a massive affair, and was to prove to be the last of the great buffalo hunts. Sky Chief, Sun Chief, and Fighting Bear were the leaders of a great Pawnee expedition, perhaps numbering some 250 warriors plus 100 women and 50 children.” ref

Llao is the god of the underworld in the mythology of the Klamath Native American tribe. Llao fought a great battle with the sky god, Skell, which caused the eruption of Mount Mazama, creating Crater LakeLlao Rock is named for Llao. The Klamath tells many stories of the powerful spirits Llao and Skell. Llao was the spirit of the underworld who lived beneath Mount Mazama. Skell was the spirit of the sky “above-world”. In the beginning, the stories say that Llao was able to pass through a hole and climb to the top of Mount Mazama, where he could almost touch the stars where Skell lived. The followers of the spirits could reportedly take the form of animals such as deer, fox, and dove, and they would play together.” ref

“The story goes on to explain the origins of Crater Lake, known as giiwas in the Klamath language. The Klamath stories say that quarrels began, and war broke out between Llao and Skell. One time Llao visited atop he saw Loha, the daughter of the Klamath Indian Chief, and fell in love with her. He became extremely angry when she rejected his hideous, underworld nature, and cursed the Klamath with fire that rained down on them. The Klamath turned to Skell for help. In response to the Klamath people’s pleadings, Skell descended from the sky to the top of Mount Shasta. A furious battle ensued, Skell from Mount Shasta and Llao from Mount Mazama. The ferociousness of the fight led two medicine men to jump into the pit of the underworld as a sacrifice to appease the spirits. Inspired by their sacrifice, Skell fought harder and defeated Llao, driving him deep into the underworld. The story goes on to explain that Skell then covered the hole to the underworld with the top of Mount Mazama to imprison Llao forever. As a final act, Skell covered the remains of the dark pit with water to restore peace and tranquility to the land, which became Crater Lake.” ref

“Klamath myths include many stories of battle, including one where Llao kills Skell. In this story, Llao is able to defeat Skell in a battle to the death. However, when Llao’s followers take Skell’s heart up a mountain to celebrate, Skell’s followers are able to steal back the heart and use it to restore Skell back to life. During the story of the “Last Great Battle”, Llao is killed by Skell. Skell orders that Llao’s body is to be cut up and thrown to the creatures of the lake. To trick the lake creatures loyal to Llao, Skell’s followers claim the body parts are Skell’s, so the creatures gobble them down. When Llao’s head is thrown into the lake, the creatures recognize it and refuse to eat it. The story explains that Llao’s head is now Wizard Island.” ref

he spirits of the Earth and sky often came and talked with the people. Llao was the spirit of the Below-World who lived beneath Lao-Yaina (today known as Mount Mazama). Skell was the spirit of the Above-World. Llao often came up and stood on top of Lao-Yaina, and his head would touch the stars near the home of Skell. There was no lake then, just a hole through which Llao passed to see the outside world. One day, Llao saw Loha, daughter of the Klamath Indian chief, and fell in love with her beauty. She rejected him because he was ugly and was from the Below-World. He got angry and swore that he would take revenge on her people. He tried to destroy the people with the curse of fire. The Klamath Indian chief sought help from Skell.” ref

“Skell descended from the sky to the top of Mount Shasta. Skell and Llao were thundering and trembling the Earth, hurling red hot rocks back and forth to each other (from Mount Shasta to Mount Mazama), causing great landslides. A terrible darkness spread over the area for days. All spirits of Earth and sky took part in this battle, creating intense fear among the people. Attempting to calm the ferocious volcano gods and to make up for the sins of the tribe, two medicine men offered to sacrifice themselves and jumped into the pit of Below-World. Impressed by their heroic sacrifice, Skell fought even harder. He finally defeated Llao, driving Llao deep down into the Below-World. He collapsed the top of Mount Mazama to imprison Llao forever beneath the world. Skell wanted peace and tranquility to cover up this dark pit, so he filled it with the beautiful blue water.” ref

Klamath people: The Klamath people are a Native American tribe of the Plateau culture area in Southern Oregon and Northern California. Today Klamath people are enrolled in the federally recognized tribes: Klamath Tribes (Klamath, Modoc, and Yahooskin (Yahuskin) Band of Northern Paiute Indians), Oregon. Quartz Valley Indian Community (Klamath, Karuk (Karok), and Shasta (Chasta) people), California. The Klamath people lived in the area around the Upper Klamath Lake (E-ukshi – “Lake”) and the Klamath, Williamson (Kóke – “River”), Wood River (E-ukalksini Kóke), and Sprague (Plaikni Kóke – “River Uphill”) rivers. They subsisted primarily on fish and gathered roots and seeds. While there was knowledge of their immediate neighbors, apparently the Klamath were unaware of the existence of the Pacific Ocean. Gatschet has described this position as leaving the Klamath living in a “protracted isolation” from outside cultures.” ref

“North of their tribal territory lived the Molala (Kuikni maklaks), in the northeast and east in the desert-like plains were various Northern Paiute bands (Shá’ttumi, collective term for Northern Paiute, Bannock and Northern Shoshone) – among them the Goyatöka Band (“Crayfish Eaters”), direct south their Modoc kin (Mo’dokni maklaks – “Southern People, i.e. Tule Lake People”) with whom they shared the Modoc Plateau, in the southwest were living Shasta peoples (S[h]asti maklaks) and the Klamath River further downstream the Karuk and Yurok (both: Skatchpalikni – “People along the Scott River“), in the west and northwest were the Latgawa (“Upland Takelma”) (according to Spier: Walumskni – “Enemy”) and Takelma/Dagelma (“Lowland/River Takelma”) (more likely both were called: Wálamsknitumi, Wálamskni maklaks – “Rogue River People”).” ref

“Beyond the Cascade Range (Yámakisham Yaina – “mountains of the Northerners”) in the Rogue River Valley (Wálamsh) lived the “Rogue “River” Athabascan (Wálamsknitumi, Wálamskni maklaks – “Rogue River People”) and further south along the Pit River (Moatuashamkshini/Móatni Kóke – “River of the Southern Dwellers”) lived the Achomawi and Atsugewi (both called: Móatuash maklaks – “Southern Dweller,” or “Southern People”). The Klamath were known to raid neighboring tribes, such as the Achomawi on the Pit River, and occasionally to take prisoners as slaves. They traded with the Wasco-Wishram at The Dalles. However, scholars such as Alfred L. Kroeber and Leslie Spier consider these slaving raids by the Klamath to begin only with the acquisition of the horse. These natives made southern Oregon their home for long enough to witness the eruption of Mount Mazama. It was a legendary volcanic mountain who is the creator of Crater Lake (giˑw), now considered to be a beautiful natural formation.” ref

Native Americans have inhabited the area around Mazama and Crater Lake for at least 10,000 years, and the volcano plays an important role in local folklore. Mount Mazama is in Klamath County, within the U.S. state of Oregon, 60 miles (97 km) north of the border with California. It lies in the southern portion of the Cascade Range. Crater Lake sits partly inside the volcano’s caldera, with a depth of 1,943 feet (592 m); it is the deepest body of freshwater in the United States and the second deepest in North America after Great Slave Lake in Canada. Before its caldera-forming eruption, Mazama stood at an elevation between 10,800 and 12,100 feet (3,300 and 3,700 m), placing it about 1 mile (1.6 km) above the lake; this would have made it Oregon’s highest peak but currently lists its elevation at 8,157 feet (2,486 m). It has a round center and extensions on the sides, resembling a bird of prey.” ref

“One of the last of many eruptions was Mazama’s climactic eruption, which has been dated to about 6,845 ± 50 years ago via radiocarbon dating, or about 7,700 years ago via dendrochronology. Other scientists have determined ages of 6,730 ± 40 years ago or roughly 7,470–7,620 calendar years ago, as well as 7,627 ± 150 calendar years ago. The fallout from the eruption continued for roughly three years, though the major eruption only occurred for a few days. The eruption is thought to have occurred during autumn, as inferred from pollen data. Mazama, depositing 250 feet (76 m) of material, which have still not been fully eroded after almost 8,000 years. To the southeast, pyroclastic flows coursed into Sand Creek and extended more than 10 miles (16 km) in that direction, some reaching Klamath Marsh, the Williamson River, and the Klamath Lakes.” ref

“The Klamath Native Americans of the area believed that Mount Mazama was inhabited by Llao, their “Chief of the Below World.” After the mountain destroyed itself the Klamaths recounted the events as a great battle between Llao and his rival Skell, their sky god, or “Chief of the Above World.” The narrative has several slightly different iterations. A common variant of the legend recounts that Llao saw a beautiful Klamath woman, the daughter of a chief, and became angry when she refused his offer of immortality if she would be his consort. Furious, Llao emerged from Mazama and threw fire upon the people beneath the mountain, and Skell stood on Mount Shasta, trying to defend the people against Llao’s fury. As the earth shook and volcanic rock fell from the sky, two holy men sacrificed themselves to Mount Mazama’s crater, and Skell was able to force Llao back into the volcano, which then collapsed on top of him; other accounts tell that Skell smashed the peak on top of Llao. Torrential rain followed, filling in the hole left by Mazama’s collapse to form Crater Lake.” ref

“Native American people have lived in the area near Mazama for at least 10,000 years. At least part of the surrounding vicinity was occupied by indigenous populations when Mazama resumed activity about 8,000 years ago, following about 20,000 years of dormancy. Most evidence suggests that Mazama served as a campsite, but not a permanent place of habitation. Sagebrush sandals have been discovered to the east of the mountain. These populations faced an increasingly dry climate and the hazards associated with volcanic activity. In civilizations south of Mazama, stories about the volcano’s eruption have been transmitted for many generations. Native populations did not tell settlers about the area because it held sacred importance among tribes throughout Oregon and northern California. Shamans did not allow local Native Americans to look towards Crater Lake, and the Klamath people believed that just looking at Mazama would cause death. Some Native Americans still refuse to look at the water.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Medicine men dance around a cooking pot giving thanks to the Great Spirit, 1841.

Corn Dance

“Corn Dance, a North American Indian ceremonial dance expressing supplication or thanksgiving for the maize crop and held at such stages as the planting, ripening, or harvesting of the grain, also called the green corn dance.” ref

The Green Corn Ceremony (Busk) is an annual ceremony practiced among various Native American peoples associated with the beginning of the yearly corn harvest. Busk is a term given to the ceremony by white traders, the word being a corruption of the Creek word puskita (pusketv) for “a fast.” These ceremonies have been documented ethnographically throughout the North American Eastern Woodlands and Southeastern tribes. Historically, it involved a first fruits rite in which the community would sacrifice the first of the green corn to ensure the rest of the crop would be successful. These Green Corn festivals were practiced widely throughout southern North America by many tribes evidenced in the Mississippian people and throughout the Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere. Green Corn festivals are still held today by many different Southeastern Woodland tribes. The Green Corn Ceremony typically occurs in late June or July, determined locally by the developing of the corn crops. The ceremony is marked with dancingfeastingfasting, and religious observations.” ref

Puskita, commonly referred to as the “Green Corn Ceremony” or “Busk,” is the central and most festive holiday of the traditional Muscogee people. It represents not only the renewal of the annual cycle, but of the spirit and traditions of the Muscogee. This is representative of the return of summer, the ripening of the new corn, and the common Native American traditions of environmental and agricultural renewal. Historically in the Seminole tribe, 12-year-old boys are declared men at the Green Corn Ceremony, and given new names by the chief as a mark of their maturity. Several tribes still participate in these ceremonies each year, but tribes who have historic tradition within the ceremony include the YuchiIroquoisCherokeeCreekChoctawNatchezChickasawShawneeMiccosukeeAlabamaHitchitiCoushattaTaskigi and Seminole tribes. Each of those tribes may have its own variations of celebration, dances, and traditions but performs a new year’s ceremony, involving fasting and several other comparisons each year.ref

“The Sun Dance is a ceremony practiced by some Native Americans in the United States and Indigenous peoples in Canada, primarily those of the Plains cultures, as well as a new movement within Native American religions, 1890 the Shoshone people in origin.” ref 

Kitanitowit: High god, Creator

“Tribal affiliation: Lenape, Wampanoag, Narragansett. The Lenape name Ketanëtuwit literally means “Great Spirit.” Related figures in other tribes: Niwaskw (Abenaki), Gitchy Manitou (Ojibway), Gisoolg (Micmac).” ref

“Nishanu: Creator, high god is the Arikara name for the Great Spirit or God. Literally, “Neshanu Natchitak” means “the Chief Above.” He is usually just called Nishanu (“Chief” or “Lord”), which is still used as the Arikara word for God today. Related figures in other tribes: Tirawa Atius (Pawnee), First Creator (Mandan), Earthmaker (Ho-chunk).” ref 

Gici Niwaskw: High god, Creator, “Great Spirit”

“Gici Niwaskw is the great creator god of the southern Wabanaki tribes. Related figures in other tribes: Kisulkw (Mi’kmaq), Gitchie Manitou (Ojibway), Kishelemukong (Lenape).” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Right pic: Kawaisu Yahwera deity, Back Canyon, Kern County, California. 

Left pic: Emblematic pattern, Ridgecrest, California.

The Patterned Body Anthromorphs

 “While studying thousands of rock art images in what is now the China Lake Air Force Base, Dr. Alan Garfinkle and his associates noted over 700 strange figures they called Patterned Body Anthromorphs, images notable for a long torso marked with various patterns, a head devoid of normal facial features, and truncated or missing legs, often with three toes. Sometimes a twisted snake accompanied the figure. In many cases, there was no gender evident, but in others, the figure had male, female, or both male and female characteristics. Almost all carried a staff or atlatl (dart thrower). Some carried a bag of seeds, which trailed out in lines behind the figure.” ref

“The Kawaiisu and other American Indian groups that lived in the area where the paintings appeared shared similar beliefs, which Dr. Garfinkel felt could provide a frame of reference for the rock art figures. Caves were seen as important places, imbued with sacred power. A spirit named Yahwera lived in a cave where the spirits of all the animals resided, even animals that had been killed.” ref

“In the spring, Yahwera opened the portal and allowed the regenerated animals to fill the land. Yahwera also provided healing medicines (“magic songs”) and successful hunts. Occasionally, a human, through accidental discovery or shamanistic transformation, could enter the world of Yahwera through a portal in a rock surface or a cave. There, below ground, the visitor would see all the animals, including those waiting to be reborn. Guarded by a large snake, the androgynous Yahwera was the keeper of the animals, wisdom, and power.” ref

“Images of Yahwera were inscribed on the sites of the portals. A known portal to the home of Yahwera was located near a spring and marked with an image of the Animal Master: a humanoid figure with red circles for the face, a feathered headdress and clawed feet. Next to the figure was a snake almost as tall as the main figure. The two drawings included (left) are representations of the patterned body anthromorphs in the Coso rock art collection (on the left) and the known representation of Yahwera, the guardian of the animal spirits (on the right). The Yokuts, another tribe in the area, refer to rock art sites as “shaman’s caches,” vaults of magic power. When a shaman spoke to the rock, the portal opened, and the Spirit Master gave the shaman magic songs and wisdom.” ref

The shaman as intermediary

“The shaman talks to the rock, but the Spirit Master opens it. In this sense, the shaman is the intermediary. Because he can break the confines of this world, he is able to intercede for the people, asking the Spirit Master to release the game the people need to live. (I’m referring to the shaman as male though San people indicate that any male or female could accept the dangerous role of dream healer if desired.) The shaman delivers the request, not only for game but also for rain, wisdom, or cures for sickness. In this way, the shaman is acting in the same role as a modern priest, delivering the faithful’s requests to their Spirit Master.” ref

“One Kawaiisu narrative tells of a man who took jimsonweed (or raw tobacco in other versions) and found Yahwera’s cave. Inside he saw many animals, including deer and bear, who spoke the same language as the people. Yahwera explained that the animals weren’t really dead; they were only waiting to be reborn. At the end of the experience, the man was cured of his illness and left the cave through water at the end of a tunnel. When he came out, he found himself far from his starting point. He’d been gone so long, his people thought he had died.” ref

“In the Coso rock art, the strange figures on the rock surface are probably not shamans in a transformative state. According to tribal beliefs recorded in the 19th and 20th century, the figures represented the Spirit Master, the keeper of the animals, the source of magical power. The shaman was the one who is sensitive enough to find the portal to the Spirit Master’s realm and powerful enough to traverse the dangerous realms beyond this one. Rock art images like the one included here from Utah seem to indicate a hierarchy of spirits because one figure is so much larger and dominates the image.  While all things living and dead may share in spirit energy, some are apparently far more powerful than others.” ref

Patterned Body Anthropomorphs of the Cosos: Revisiting the Shamans and Animal Masters of Deep Time

“Abstract: In this paper we examine deep time and space parallels in rock art patterns pertaining to the Patterned Body Anthropomorph iconic motif or PBAs found in Coso Range rock art sites in south-central California. The authors propose that recurring patterns found on some of the more representational or identifiable rock art elements in the region reveal the presence of an ancient set of visual motifs that continue to be found in oral tradition and symbolic culture of descendent Numic and broader Uto-Aztecan Native peoples including the Hopi and Huichol. Coso PBAs have become a prominent archetypical image of California and American rock art evinced by their use as trademarks for both the Maturango Museum in Ridgecrest, California and as employed by the United States national rock art organization, the American Rock Art Research Association (ARARA). The present research investigates the possible evolution of ideas and interpretations associated with these figures. We explore the PBA as a formalized perception of a deity and/or supra-mundane being, as an adorant, shaman, Animal Master/Mistress, and bearer of the “eye of god” or nierika motif of southern Mesoamerica’s, Uto-Aztecan ethnic groups.” ref 

MYTH, RITUAL AND ROCK ART: COSO DECORATED ANIMAL-HUMANS AND THE ANIMAL MASTER

“Abstract: Recent interpretations of rock art have often focused on these images as a somewhat exclusive record of shamanic experiences. Consideration of decorated animal-human figures (Patterned Body Anthropomorphs-PBAs) within the Coso Rock Art Complex in eastern California, in conjunction with the mythology of Kawaiisu, other Numic and Tubatulabal groups, suggests an alternative (or perhaps complementary) view. Coso PBAs may be representations of an important supernatural — possibly the netherworld master of the animals. This interpretation, if valid, provides further support for Coso rock art as a manifestation of a hunting religion complex. Such a complex prominently featured animal ceremonialism and functioned in part as a means to envision a supernatural agent that had special powers controlling the movements of animals and restoring game to the human world.” ref

“About the art above:

Yahwera panel with a side-by-side comparison with Coso PBA panel from Litte Petroglyph Canyon (aka Renegade Canyon). Scale of Coso PBA enlarged to allow a direct  comparison with Back Canyon image. right pic above: Kawaisu Yahwera deity. Yahwera Kahniina, home of the Kawaiisu Animal Master and location of the entrance portal to the Animal Underworld. Back Canyon pictogram panel is located on a columnar island of limestone in Walker Basin, California.” ref

MYTH, RITUAL, AND ROCK ART: COSO DECORATED ANIMAL-HUMANS AND THE ANIMAL MASTER

“Yahwera also has a special relationship with mountain quail, and in three narratives (two Kawaiisu and one Tubatulabal) he fathers a profusion of quail progeny by his human spouse. Yahwera lives in a cave, hole, or tunnel deep within the earth, where the spirits of deceased game animals dwell.” ref 

Acoustic Archaeology at the Animal Master’s Portal

“In the traditional worldview of the Kawaiisu, Yahwera, or the Master of the Animals, is a bird-human who lives and reigns over the Animal Underworld. The entrance to his subterranean abode is a natural feature on the landscape, a named, limestone rock portal upon which a rock painting depicts Yahwera. Kawaiisu oral narratives emphasize sound qualities attaching to this supernatural figure. Narratives also associate the “sound of the deer in the rock” with this sacred place. Indeed, the limestone monolith can be induced to exhibit acoustical attributes, specifically, multiple echoes that would seem to offer an impression of hoofbeats. Drawing on varied data, this study seeks insights into the meaning of the Yahwera narratives and the relationships of sound to elements of Kawaiisu cosmology.” ref 

“The Kawaiisu Nation (pronounced: “ka-wai-ah-soo”]) are a tribe of indigenous people of California in the United States. Tribal members lived in a series of small and large permanent villages in the Tehachapi Valley and to the north across the Tehachapi Pass in the southern Sierra Nevada, toward Lake Isabella and Walker Pass, and all the way to the Pacific. Historically, the Kawaiisu also traveled eastward and westward on food-gathering trips to areas in the northern Mojave Desert, to the north and northeast of the Antelope ValleySearles Valley, as far east as the Panamint Valley, the Panamint Mountains the western edge of Death Valley and to the Pacific Coast. – The Kawaiisu considered the Coso Range near Ridgecrest Ca. the site of their creation and their most sacred land.” ref

“They are well known for their rock art/Po-o-ka-di that exists throughout their territory, including on the Chana Lake Naval Weapons Center. Kawaiisu complex basket weaving was recognized as the finest in the Americas. The Kawaiisu language is a member of the Southern Numic division of the Uto-Aztecan language family. The Kawaiisu homeland was bordered by speakers of non-Numic Uto-Aztecan languages.” ref

“The Kawaiisu have been mislabeled and mistakenly known by several other names, including the Caliente, Paiute, Tehachapi Valley Indians, and Tehachapi Indians, but they called themselves depending on dialect Nuwu, New-wa, Nu-oo-ah or Niwiwi, meaning “The People.” The tribal designations as “Kawaiisu” are English adoptions of the Yokutsan words used by the neighboring Yokuts. They self-identification term Nüwa (“People”) is commonly used by themselves.” ref

“Before European contact, the Kawaiisu lived in 100s 0f permanent winter villages of 60 to 100 people. They often divided into smaller groups during the warmer months of the year and harvested plants(included pinon nuts) in the mountains and deserts. They hunted animals and fished for food and raw materials. They were known for their mining and trading of obsidian throughout the western Americas and deep into Mexico. They were also known for their building of sturdy tulle boats used for fishing and transportation. Some believe they were divided in two regional groups: the “Desert Kawaiisu” and the “Mountain Kawaiisu.” ref

“The Kawaiisu are related by language and culture to the Southern Paiute of southwestern Nevada and the Chemehuevi of the eastern Mojave Desert of California. They may have originally lived in the desert before coming to the Tehachapi Mountains region, as early as many thousands of years ago. The Kawaiisu participated in cooperative antelope drives (driving herds of antelope into traps so they could be more easily slaughtered) with the Yokuts, another group living in the San Joaquin Valley. Since 1863, after the Kawaiisu Massacre at Tillie Creek, they have often been in conflict with the tribe in the mountains north of them.” ref

“The Kawaiisu are famous for their petroglyphs and rock art. The Kawaiisu culture is matriarchal. The estimates of the Kawaiisu tribal membership are grossly undercounted. Kawaiisu members sometimes called themselves the “Coso People” or even joined other tribes to protect themselves and their families. Today , the Kawaiisu’s own tribal records indicate that total eligible members may be as high as 100,000 and with one family having up to 10,000 eligible members.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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1. Kebaran culture 23,022-16,522 Years Ago, 2. Kortik Tepe 12,422-11,722 Years Ago, 3. Jerf el-Ahmar 11,222 -10,722 Years Ago, 4. Gobekli Tepe 11,152-9,392 Years Ago, 5. Tell Al-‘abrUbaid and Uruk Periods, 6. Nevali Cori 10,422 -10,122 Years Ago, 7. Catal Hoyuk 9,522-7,722 Years Ago

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Three-legged crow

“The three-legged (or tripedal) crow is a mythological creature in various mythologies and arts of East Asia. It is believed to inhabit and represent the Sun. Evidence of the earliest bird-Sun motif or totemic articles excavated around 5000 BCE from the lower Yangtze River delta area. This bird-Sun totem heritage was observed in later Yangshao and Longshan cultures. The Chinese have several versions of crow and crow-Sun tales. But the most popular depiction and myth of the Sun crow is that of the Yangwu or Jinwu, the “golden crow“.It has also been found figured on ancient coins from Lycia and Pamphylia.” ref

“In Chinese mythology and culture, the three-legged crow is called the sanzuwu and is present in many myths. It is also mentioned in the Shanhaijing. The earliest known depiction of a three-legged crow appears in Neolithic pottery of the Yangshao culture. The sanzuwu in a disc represents the sun and is also one of the Twelve ornaments that is used in the decoration of formal imperial garments in ancient China.” ref

“The most popular depiction and myth of a sanzuwu is that of a sun crow called the Yangwu (陽烏; yángwū) or more commonly referred to as the Jīnwū (金烏; jīnwū) or “golden crow“. Even though it is described as a crow or raven, it is usually colored red instead of black. A silk painting from the Western Han excavated at the Mawangdui archaeological site also depicts a “golden crow” in the sun.” ref

“In ancient Chinese depictions, the Chinese god of creation, Fuxi, is often depicted carrying the sun disk with the jīnwū (金烏; jīnwū; ‘golden crow’) while the Chinese goddess of creation, Nüwa, holds the moon disk which contains a gold stripped toad. The sanzuwu is also depicted with the Queen Mother of the West (Chinese: 西王母; pinyin: Xi Wangmu) who are believed to be her messengers.” ref

“According to folklore, there were originally ten sun crows which settled in 10 separate suns. They perched on a red mulberry tree called the Fusang (扶桑; fúsāng), literally meaning “the leaning mulberry tree”, in the East at the foot of the Valley of the Sun. This mulberry tree was said to have many mouths opening from its branches. Each day one of the sun crows would be rostered to travel around the world on a carriage, driven by Xihe, the ‘mother’ of the suns. As soon as one sun crow returned, another one would set forth in its journey crossing the sky.” ref

“According to Shanhaijing, the sun crows loved eating two grasses of immortality, one called the Diri (地日; dìrì), or “ground sun”, and the other the Chunsheng (春生; chūnshēng), or “spring grow”. The sun crows would often descend from heaven on to the earth and feast on these grasses, but Xihe did not like this; thus, she covered their eyes to prevent them from doing so. Folklore also held that, at around 2170 BCE or 4,192 years ago, all ten sun crows came out on the same day, causing the world to burn; Houyi, the celestial archer saved the day by shooting down all but one of the sun crows. (See Mid-Autumn Festival for variants of this legend.)” ref

Other tripedal creatures in Chinese mythology

“In Chinese mythology, there are other three-legged creatures besides the crow, for instance, the yu  “a three-legged tortoise that causes malaria”. The three-legged crow symbolizing the sun has a yin yang counterpart in the chánchú 蟾蜍 “three-legged toad” symbolizing the moon (along with the moon rabbit). According to an ancient tradition, this toad is the transformed Chang’e lunar deity who stole the elixir of life from her husband Houyi the archer, and fled to the moon where she was turned into a toad.” ref

“The Fènghuáng is commonly depicted as being two-legged but there are some instances in art in which it has a three-legged appearance. Xi Wangmu (Queen Mother of the West) is also said to have three green birds (青鳥; qīngniǎo) that gathered food for her and in Han-period religious art they were depicted as having three legs. In the Yongtai Tomb dating to the Tang Dynasty Era, when the Cult of Xi Wangu flourished, the birds are also shown as being three-legged.” ref

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“In Japanese mythology, this flying creature is a raven or a jungle crow called Yatagarasu (八咫烏, “eight-span crow”) and the appearance of the great bird is construed as evidence of the will of Heaven or divine intervention in human affairs.” ref 

“Although Yatagarasu is mentioned in a number of places in Shintō, the depictions are primarily seen on Edo wood art, dating back to the early 1800s wood-art era. Although not as celebrated today, the crow is a mark of rebirth and rejuvenation; the animal that has historically cleaned up after great battles symbolized the renaissance after such tragedy.” ref

“Yatagarasu as a crow-god is a symbol specifically of guidance. This great crow was sent from heaven as a guide for legendary Emperor Jimmu on his initial journey from the region which would become Kumano to what would become Yamato, (Yoshino and then Kashihara). It is generally accepted that Yatagarasu is an incarnation of Kamotaketsunimi no Mikoto, but none of the early surviving documentary records are quite so specific.” ref

“In more than one instance, Yatagarasu appears as a three-legged crow not in Kojiki but in Wamyō Ruijushō. Both the Japan Football Association and subsequently its administered teams such as the Japan national football team use the symbol of Yatagarasu in their emblems and badges respectively. The winner of the Emperor’s Cup is also given the honor of wearing the Yatagarasu emblem the following season.” ref

“Although the Yatagarasu is commonly perceived as a three-legged crow, there is, in fact, no mention of it being such in the original Kojiki. Consequently, it is theorised that this is a result of a later possible misinterpretation during the Heian period that the Yatagarasu and the Chinese Yangwu refer to an identical entity.” ref

“In Korean mythology, it is known as Samjogo (hangul: 삼족오; hanja: 三足烏 – literally “three-legged crow”). During the Goguryo period, the ancient Korean people thought the Samjok-o to be a symbol of the sun and of great power, often representing the Taewang (hangul: 태왕; hanja: 太王 – literally “Emperor” or “Greatest of Kings”) and Goguryeo’s sovereignty. It was also believed that the three-legged crow lived in the sun while a toad lived in the moon. The Samjok-o is such a highly respected symbol of power, even superior to both the dragon and the Korean bonghwang, that it carried into Silla, Goryeo, Joseon, and modern Korea.” ref

“Samjoko appeared in the story Yeonorang Seonyeo. A couple, Yeono and Seo, lived on the beach of the East Sea in 157 (King Adalala 4), and rode to Japan on a moving rock. The Japanese took two people to Japan as kings and noblemen. At that time, the light of the sun and the moon disappeared in Silla. King Adalala sent an official to Japan to return the couple, but Yeono said to take the silk that was made by his wife, Seo, and sacrifice it to the sky. As he said this, the sun and moon were brighter again.” ref

“In modern Korea, Samjok-o is still found especially in dramas such as Jumong. The three-legged crow was one of several emblems under consideration to replace the bonghwang in the Korean seal of state when its revision was considered in 2008. The Samjok-o appears also in Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors FC‘s current emblem. There are some Korean companies using Samjok-o as their corporate logos.” ref

Utakke: Creator god, High god, Sky spirit

“Utakke is the great sky god of the Carrier tribes. He is a benevolent creator spirit who sometimes intervenes to help people in distress. His name means “He who lives on high.” Related figures in other tribes: Nesaru (Arikara), Kitche Manitou (Chippewa).” ref

“In the Andean tradition, Pachamama (Cosmic Mother), Wiraqucha (God or Cosmic Father), Tayta Inti (Father Sun), Ttita Wayra (Father Wind), Mama Unu (Mother Water), Mama Killa (Mother Moon) and Mama Ch’aska (Mother Stars) can be seen all over the world.” ref

“Achiyalabopa was the great bird god of the Zuñi people. He was extraordinary in size and had rainbow-colored feathers as sharp as knives. Research of stories, about Achiyalabopa all agree that “He” is the god of the sky, calm, bright, and beautiful skies.” ref

“Ababinili is the Creator God of the Chickasaw tribe. His name means “the one who sits above” or “dwells above”, and is associated with the Sun.” ref

“Above-Old-Man (Gudatrigakwitl): High god/Creator Wiyot people. Related figures in other tribes: Gitchie Manitou (Ojibway), Ouga (Cherokee), Wakan-Tanka (Sioux). Gudatrigakwitl means “The Ancient One Above” in the Wiyot language, and is the Wiyot name for the Creator (God.) Gudatrigakwitl is a divine spirit with no human form or attributes and is never personified in Wiyot myths.” ref

“Agugux (Aguguq, Agu’gux, Agug’uq), This is the name of the Aleut creator god. Agugux is a disembodied spirit not normally personified in Aleutian stories. His name literally means “Creator” and is associated with the sun and the eastern direction.” ref

“Ahone (Rawottonemd) is the great creator god of the Powhatan tribe, sometimes known as the Great Spirit or the Creator, and like most Algonquian high deities, Ahone appears to have been an abstract, benevolent, creative spirit who was not personified in folklore (and probably had no gender).” ref

“Ahone created the world as a flat disk with the Powhatan tribe at its center. He was a chief god and creator but also considered to be detached from mankind and required no offerings or sacrifices like many other gods. The god Oki was his wrathful counterpart.” ref

The Powhatans worshipped a number of spirits, the most important of whom was Okee. Men cut their hair in imitation of Okee’s. To assuage his anger in times of crisis or court his pleasure before the hunt, they made sacrifices. Other spirits included the benevolent Ahone, the Great Hare creator god, an unnamed female divinity, and the Sun god. In charge of managing relations with these various spirits were the kwiocosuk, or shamans, who lived apart from common Powhatans and wielded the society’s ultimate authority. Quiocosins, or holy temples, housed the shamans and hosted various rituals. When weroances, or chiefs, died, they were reduced to bundles of bones and, for several years, stored in the temples. The Powhatans also had a variety of rituals associated with eating, hunting, male initiation, and the killing of prisoners of war. Smith described what appeared to be a “conjuration” and, on another occasion, a three-day dance that may have been a yearly harvest festival.” ref, ref 

“Akba Atatdia (Akbaatatdia, Isaahka, Isaahkawuattee, Baakukkule, Iichikbaaalee; Old Man Coyote, First Coyote, First Maker, Old Man), Coyote played the role of both Creator and Trickster in Crow Indian mythology.” ref

“Apistotoke (Apistotoki, Apistotooki, A’pistotooki, Apistotokio, Apisstotoki, A’pistitooki; other names: Ihtsipatapiyohpa, Iihtsipaitapiiyo’pa, Great Spirit), the great creator god of the Blackfoot tribe, “Our Creator” in the Blackfoot language.” ref

“Great Spirit” called Manitou and the name for their supreme being is “Apistotoke” which is believed to be one in the same with the Sun (Nah-too-si). The Sun was considered the most important of all and was at the center of Blackfoot religious beliefs.” ref

“Awonawilona. – Dual deity of the Zuñi Indians of New Mexico. He created a universe of nine layers. Earth, a large round island surrounded by oceans, is located on the central layer. The first people lived deep in the womb of Mother Earth ( Awitelin Tsta ). Then Father Sun ( Apoyan Tachi ) ordered his twin sons, the gods of war, to take them to earth because he was bored and had no one to pray to.” ref 

Ababinili, the Creator God of the Chickasaw

“High god, Creator, sun god: Ababinili is the Creator God of the Chickasaw tribe. His name means “one who sits above” or “dwells above,” and he is associated with the Sun. Also known as: Inki Abu. Related figures in other tribes: Unetlanvhi (Cherokee), Gitchy Manitou (Ojibway), Ahone (Powhatan).” ref 

“Agugux (Agug’uq), the Aleut Creator,” and he is associated with the sun and the eastern direction.” ref 

“Inti is the ancient Inca sun god. He is revered as the national patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more appropriately viewed as a cluster of solar aspects, since the Inca divided his identity according to the stages of the sun.” ref

“Asdzą́ą́ Nádleehé is one of the creation spirits of the Navajo. She helped create the sky and the earth. Changing Woman, mother of twins Monster Slayer and Born for Water (fathered by the sun).” ref

“Viracocha was Worshiped as the God of the Sun and storms. A creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. For the Inca the Viracocha cult was more important than the sun cult.” ref

Nakuset: Sky God, Sun being, Old Man

“In Mi’kmaq mythology, Nákúset, the Sun, was the first being created by the Creator god Kisu’lkw. He is often personified as an old man in Micmac myth, and his alternate name, Niskam, literally means “grandfather.” Related figures in other tribes: Notos (Blackfoot).” ref

Tamosi: Ancient One, Sky-Chief, Old-Man-Sky, Grandfather Sky

“Tamosi is the great Creator god “Old Man-Sky” [Kabu = the Sun] of the Carib tribe. Related figures in other tribes: Kururumany (Arawak), Gitchie Manitou (Anishinabe).” ref, ref

“Tirawa: High God, Creator, “Father Above” Related figures in other tribes: Neshanu (Arikara), Sky Chief (Caddo), Gitche Manitou (Chippewa). Atius Tirawa is the Creator god “Father Above” in the Pawnee language. Sometimes, the Plains Indian term “Great Spirit” is also used. His wife was Atira, goddess of the Earth.” ref, ref 

Pawnee mythology

“Atíʼas Tirawa, which means “Our Father Above” in the Pawnee language (inaccurately, as “Great Spirit”), was the creator god. The wife of Tirawa was Atira, goddess of the Earth. Tirawahat told Sakuru, the Sun god, to stand in the east.” ref, ref

Unetlanvhi: High god, Creator, “Great Spirit”

“Unetlanvhi, which literally means “Creator,” is the Cherokee name for God. Sometimes Cherokee people today also refer to the Creator as the “Great Spirit,” a borrowed phrase. In other tribes: Maheu (Cheyenne), Gitchie Manitou (Ojibway), Ahone (Powhatan).” ref

“Hahgwehdiyu is the Iroquois god of goodness and light, as well as a creator god. He and his twin brother Hahgwehdaetgah, the god of evil, were children of Atahensic the Sky Woman (or Tekawerahkwa the Earth Woman), whom Hahgwehdaetgah killed in childbirth.” ref

Wakonda: High god, Creator, Great Spirit

“Wakonda is the great Creator power of the Osage, Omaha, and Ponca tribes. Osage: refer to the sun as “Grandfather Sun” and the moon as “Moon Woman.” ref, ref

Wakan Tanka: High god, Creator, Great Mystery

“Wakan Tanka is the great Creator power of the Lakota and Dakota tribes. In other tribes: Wakanda (Omaha), Earth-maker (Ho-chunk), Gitche Manitou (Ojibway).” ref

“Wakan Tanka told him that his People had become lazy in their prayers, so he sent them a new way of praying–the Sun Dance. In a Sun Dance, dancers offer their bodies as a sacrifice on behalf of all the people.” ref

Natosi: Male Sky God, sun being

“Natosi: Niskam (Mi’kmaq) is the Blackfoot sun god. The name Naato’si does not literally mean “sun” in Blackfoot– it actually means “holy one,” although it is sometimes used to refer to the sun in everyday speech as well. His wife is Komorkis, the moon, and their children are the stars.” ref

“Catequil (A.k.a. Apocatequil, Apu Catequil) was the tutelar god of day and good, thunder, and lightning in northern Peruvian highlands. Catequil and his twin brother Piguerao were born from hatched eggs. Catequil considered a regional variant of god Illapa.” ref

“Bridge of the Gods story told by the Klickitat people of the Pacific Northwest. The chief of all the gods “Great Spirit” and his two sons, WyEast (Mt. Hood) and Pahtoe, or Klickitat (Mt. Adams).” ref, ref

Ahone (Rawottonemd), creator god of the Powhatan

“Ahone is the great creator god of the Powhatan tribe, sometimes known as the Great Spirit or Creator in English. Like most Algonquian high deities, Ahone appears to have been an abstract.” ref

Above-Old-Man (Gudatrigakwitl), creator god of the Wiyot

“Gudatrigakwitl means “The Ancient One Above” in the Wiyot language, and is the Wiyot name for the Creator (God.)” ref

“Hisagita Misa (Breath-Maker), is the Creator God of the Seminole tribe. Hisagita-imisi (“preserver of breath”) was the supreme god, a solar deity. He is also called Ibofanga (“the one who is sitting above (us).” ref, ref

Chief Above, Great Father Above, Sky Chief, Great Spirit

“Type: High godscreator godsspirits of the sky. Related figures in other tribes: Nishanu (Arikara), Tirawa (Pawnee), Gitchie Manitou (Chippewa). Caddi Ayo means “Sky Chief” or “Chief Above” in the Caddo language, and is the Caddo name for the Creator (God.) Sometimes, the Plains Indian term “Great Spirit” is also used.” ref

“Gitche Manitou means “Great Spirit” in several Algonquian languages. In more recent Anishinaabe culture, the Anishinaabe language word Gichi-manidoo means Great Spirit, the Creator of all things and the Giver of Life, and is sometimes translated as the “Great Mystery”. Historically, Anishinaabe people believed in a variety of spirits, whose images were placed near doorways for protection. Other Anishinaabe names for God incorporated through the process of syncretism are Gizhe-manidoo (“venerable Manidoo“), Wenizhishid-manidoo (“Fair Manidoo“) and Gichi-ojichaag (“Great Spirit”). While Gichi-manidoo and Gichi-ojichaag both mean “Great Spirit”, Gichi-manidoo carried the idea of the greater spiritual connectivity while Gichi-ojichaag carried the idea of individual soul’s connection to the Gichi-manidoo. In addition to the Algonquian Anishinaabeg, many other tribes believed in Gitche Manitou. References to the Great Manitou by the Cheyenne and the Oglala Sioux (notably in the recollections of Black Elk), indicate that belief in this deity extended into the Great Plains, fully across the wider group of Algonquian peoples.” ref

“The Thunderbirds were the most powerful spirits except for the Great Spirit, who was the most powerful of all. The Great Spirit was the Sioux God.” ref

Parallelism in Sioux and Sami Spiritual Traditions

“The Sámi are an Indigenous peoples inhabiting the region of Sápmi, which today encompasses large northern parts of NorwaySwedenFinland, and of the Kola Peninsula in Russia.” ref

“Parallelism in Sioux (Indigenous people of the Great Plains of North America) and Sami (Indigenous people of Northern Scandinavia) Spiritual Traditions.” ref

“Great Spirit deities: High godCreator Related figures in other tribes: Wakan Tanka (Sioux), First Maker (Hidatsa), Gitchee Manitou (Ojibway). Earthmaker is the Creator God of the Hochunk (Winnebago) tribe. His primary name Man’una and its variants literally mean “Earth-maker,” but he is sometimes also known by other titles such as Wajaguzera (Creator or Maker of Things), Wakanchank (Great Spirit,) Uwashira (Master), and so on. Earthmaker is considered to be a divine spirit but unlike the Great Spirit deities of the other Siouan tribes, is sometimes personified in Hochunk myths, interacting directly with humankind.” ref 

“Micmac spirit Kisulkw: High god, Creator, “Great Grandfather,” “Great Lord,” or “Great Spirit.” Related figures in other tribes: Niwaskw (Abenaki), Gitche Manitou (Ojibway), Kitanitowit (Lenape).” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

“These ideas are my speculations from the evidence.”

I am still researching the “god‘s origins” all over the world. So you know, it is very complicated but I am smart and willing to look, DEEP, if necessary, which going very deep does seem to be needed here, when trying to actually understand the evolution of gods and goddesses. I am sure of a few things and less sure of others, but even in stuff I am not fully grasping I still am slowly figuring it out, to explain it to others. But as I research more I am understanding things a little better, though I am still working on understanding it all or something close and thus always figuring out more. 

Sky Father/Sky God?

“Egyptian: (Nut) Sky Mother and (Geb) Earth Father” (Egypt is different but similar)

Turkic/Mongolic: (Tengri/Tenger Etseg) Sky Father and (Eje/Gazar Eej) Earth Mother *Transeurasian*

Hawaiian: (Wākea) Sky Father and (Papahānaumoku) Earth Mother *Austronesian*

New Zealand/ Māori: (Ranginui) Sky Father and (Papatūānuku) Earth Mother *Austronesian*

Proto-Indo-European: (Dyḗus/Dyḗus ph₂tḗr) Sky Father and (Dʰéǵʰōm/Pleth₂wih₁) Earth Mother

Indo-Aryan: (Dyaus Pita) Sky Father and (Prithvi Mata) Earth Mother *Indo-European*

Italic: (Jupiter) Sky Father and (Juno) Sky Mother *Indo-European*

Etruscan: (Tinia) Sky Father and (Uni) Sky Mother *Tyrsenian/Italy Pre–Indo-European*

Hellenic/Greek: (Zeus) Sky Father and (Hera) Sky Mother who started as an “Earth Goddess” *Indo-European*

Nordic: (Dagr) Sky Father and (Nótt) Sky Mother *Indo-European*

Slavic: (Perun) Sky Father and (Mokosh) Earth Mother *Indo-European*

Illyrian: (Deipaturos) Sky Father and (Messapic Damatura’s “earth-mother” maybe) Earth Mother *Indo-European*

Albanian: (Zojz) Sky Father and (?) *Indo-European*

Baltic: (Perkūnas) Sky Father and (Saulė) Sky Mother *Indo-European*

Germanic: (Týr) Sky Father and (?) *Indo-European*

Colombian-Muisca: (Bochica) Sky Father and (Huythaca) Sky Mother *Chibchan*

Aztec: (Quetzalcoatl) Sky Father and (Xochiquetzal) Sky Mother *Uto-Aztecan*

Incan: (Viracocha) Sky Father and (Mama Runtucaya) Sky Mother *Quechuan*

China: (Tian/Shangdi) Sky Father and (Dì) Earth Mother *Sino-Tibetan*

Sumerian, Assyrian and Babylonian: (An/Anu) Sky Father and (Ki) Earth Mother

Finnish: (Ukko) Sky Father and (Akka) Earth Mother *Finno-Ugric*

Sami: (Horagalles) Sky Father and (Ravdna) Earth Mother *Finno-Ugric*

Puebloan-Zuni: (Ápoyan Ta’chu) Sky Father and (Áwitelin Tsíta) Earth Mother

Puebloan-Hopi: (Tawa) Sky Father and (Kokyangwuti/Spider Woman/Grandmother) Earth Mother *Uto-Aztecan*

Puebloan-Navajo: (Tsohanoai) Sky Father and (Estsanatlehi) Earth Mother *Na-Dene*

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

“These ideas are my speculations from the evidence.”

“1 central Eurasian Neolithic individual from Tajikistan (around 8,000 years ago) and approximately 8,200 years ago Yuzhniy Oleniy Ostrov group from Karelia in western Russia formed by 19 genomes affinity to Villabruna ancestry than all the other Eastern Hunter-Gatherer groups” https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05726-0

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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“The Master of Animals or Lord of Animals is a motif in ancient art showing a human between and grasping two confronted animals. It is very widespread in the art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt. The figure is normally male, but not always, the animals may be realistic or fantastical, and the figure may have animal elements such as horns, or an animal’s upper body. Unless he is shown with specific divine attributes, he is typically described as a hero, although what the motif represented to the cultures which created the works probably varies greatly. The motif is so widespread and visually effective that many depictions were probably conceived as decoration with only a vague meaning attached to them. The Master of Animals is the “favorite motif of Achaemenian official seals“, but the figures in these cases should be understood as the king.” ref

“The human figure may be standing, found from the 4th millennium BC, or kneeling on one knee, these latter found from the 3rd millennium BC. They are usually shown looking frontally, but in Assyrian pieces typically shown from the side. Sometimes the animals are clearly alive, whether fairly passive and tamed, or still struggling or attacking. In other pieces, they may represent dead hunter’s prey. Other associated representations show a figure controlling or “taming” a single animal, usually to the right of the figure. But the many representations of heroes or kings killing an animal are distinguished from these. One of the earliest known depictions of the Master of Animals appears on stamp seals of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia. The motif appears on a terracotta stamp seal from Tell Telloh, ancient Girsu, at the end of the prehistoric Ubaid period of Mesopotamia, c. 4000 BCE or 6,020 years ago.” ref

“The motif also takes pride of place at the top of the famous Gebel el-Arak Knife in the Louvre, an ivory and flint knife dating from the Naqada II d period of Egyptian prehistory, which began c. 3450 BC. Here a figure in the Mesopotamian dress, often taken to be a god, grapples with two lions. It has been connected to the famous Pashupati seal from the Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1500 BC), showing a figure seated in a yoga-like posture, with a horned headdress (or horns), and surrounded by animals. This in turn is related to a figure on the Gundestrup cauldron, who sits with legs part-crossed, has antlers, is surrounded by animals, and grasps a snake in one hand and a torc in the other. This famous and puzzling object probably dates to 200 BC, or possibly as late as 300 AD, and though found in Denmark was perhaps made in Thrace. A form of the master of animals motif appears on an Early Medieval belt buckle from Kanton Wallis, Switzerland, which depicts the biblical figure of Daniel between two lions.” ref

“The purse-lid from the Sutton Hoo burial of about 620 AD has two plaques with a man between two wolves, and the motif is common in Anglo-Saxon art and related Early Medieval styles, where the animals generally remain aggressive. Other notable examples of the motif in Germanic art include one of the Torslunda plates, and helmets from Vendel and Valsgärde. In the art of Mesopotamia the motif appears very early, usually with a “naked hero”, for example at Uruk in the Uruk period (c. 4000 to 3100 BC), but was “outmoded in Mesopotamia by the seventh century BC”. In Luristan bronzes the motif is extremely common, and often highly stylized. In terms of its composition, the Master of Animals motif compares with another very common motif in the art of the ancient Near East and Mediterranean, that of two confronted animals flanking and grazing on a Tree of Life.” ref

Master of Animals: Deity figures

“Although such figures are not all, or even usually, deities, the term can also be a generic name for a number of deities from a variety of cultures with close relationships to the animal kingdom or in part animal form (in cultures where that is not the norm). These figures control animals, usually wild ones, and are responsible for their continued reproduction and availability for hunters. They sometimes also have female equivalents, the so-called Mistress of the Animals. Many Mesopotamian examples may represent Enkidu, a central figure in the Ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh. They may all have a Stone Age precursor who was probably a hunter’s deity. Many relate to the horned deity of the hunt, another common type, typified by Cernunnos, and a variety of stag, bull, ram, and goat gods. Horned gods are not universal, however, and in some cultures bear gods, like Arktos might take the role, or even the more anthropomorphic deities who lead the Wild Hunt. Such figures are also often referred to as ‘Lord of the forest’* or ‘Lord of the mountain’. The Greek god seen as a “Master of Animals” is usually Apollo, the god of hunting. Shiva has the epithet Pashupati meaning the “Lord of animals”, and these figures may derive from an archetype. Chapter 39 of the Book of Job has been interpreted as an assertion of the God of the Hebrew Bible as Master of Animals.” ref

“Master of the animals, is generally a supernatural figure regarded as the protector of game in the traditions of foraging peoples. The name was devised by Western scholars who have studied such hunting and gathering societies. In some traditions, the master of the animals is believed to be the ruler of the forest and guardian of all animals; in others, he is the ruler of only one species, usually a large animal of economic or social importance to the tribe. Thus, among Eurasian peoples the animal most frequently is the bear; among the reindeer cultures of the tundra, the reindeer; among the northern coastal peoples of Eurasia and America, the whale, the seal, or the walrus; among the North American Indians, the bear, the beaver, or the caribou; and among Mesoamerican and South American Indians, the wild pig, jaguar, deer, or tapir. In some traditions he is pictured in human form, at times having animal attributes or riding an animal; in other traditions, he is a giant animal or can assume animal form at will.” ref

“A complex system of customs governs the relationship between the master of the animals, the game animal, and the hunter. The master controls the game animals or their spirits (in many myths, by penning them). He releases a certain number to humans as food. Only the allotted number may be killed, and the slain animals must be treated with respect. The master of the animals, if properly invoked, will also guide the hunter to the kill. The souls of the animals, when slain, return to the master’s pens and give him a report of their treatment. If this system is violated, the master will avenge an animal improperly slain, usually by withholding game. A ceremony then must be held to remove the offense or a shaman (a religious personage with healing and psychic transformation powers) sent to placate the master.” ref

“In Minoan and Mycenaean mythological and religious iconography appears a male deity, called later by the Greeks, Master of Animals. He is a counterpart of the Mistress of Wild Animals (Potnia theron) portrayed with wild animals, mainly lions, and exerting his power over them. Some authors suppose that the Master of Animals could represent a hunting deity and protector of nature, or even a nature god. But sometimes this deity, accompanied by a lion, is armed with a spear and a shield and at other times he is again armed, but without the company of animals. M.P. Nilsson posed an interesting observation about the close relationship between the Master of Animals and the armed god, as a hunter and war god. He believed, that the spear and the shield became a religious symbol of this god.” ref

“The Master of Animals could represent, at least, from the beginning of the Late Helladic period, a nature god who is related to hunting. The Mycenaeans took this type from the Minoan belief system, which was the origin of this deity. After 1500 BCE and during the fourteenth century BCE the nature of this figure changed. The warlike tendency of the Mycenaean society was growing, and this could be the reason why their male god had to assume another responsibility. His attributes, mainly the shield, became frequent decorative motives in Mycenaean art and pottery production. Thus it is possible that the male god, depicted from the beginning primarily with animals, and later on with a spear and a shield, could be Enyalius (Enualios), known from Linear B script, and who is equated in Greek literature with Ares, the god of war.” ref

“On seals and ring-reliefs, the Master of Animals is depicted in the Minoan manner, wearing only a small cloth around his slim waist and turning his body to show his muscular torso in a frontal position. The head, usually with a beard and rich hair, has a strong facial expression. A gem from Kydonia and the Mycenaean seal ring illustrates him as such, while the well-known Aegina Treasure-pendant represents the Master of Animals with an Egyptian influence. The motif is created in a completely different way. The deity looks like an Egyptian, holding waterbirds in his hands and his surroundings consists of double snakes and papyrus flowers. Oriental seals from the Palace of Cadmus in Thiva show the Master of Animals with goats, some vegetation, and various symbols from Syrian and Mesopotamian mythology.” ref

Paganism 12,000 years old: related to (Pre-Capitalism): LINK

Paganism 7,000-5,000 years old: related to (Capitalism) (World War 0) Elite & their slaves: LINK

Paganism 5,000 years old: progressed organized religion and the state: related to (Kings and the Rise of the State): LINK

Paganism 4,000 years old: related to (First Moralistic gods, then the Origin time of Monotheism): LINK

I am adding many Native American Deities to show:

Sky Father (in Proto-Indo-European mythology): High god, often related to the sun

Twin/two Sons: (Devine Twins in Proto-Indo-European mythology)

Sky Gods/Sky Father Gods: these, to me, are closely related myths going back to South Siberia/North China originally moved by migrations and trade.

“In comparative mythology, the sky father is a term for a recurring concept in polytheistic religion. The concept of “sky father” may also include Sun gods with similar characteristics, such as Ra. The concept is complementary to an “earth mother.” ref

Nitosi: Creator god, high god, sky spirit

“Nitosi, or Yedariye, is the name of the great sky god of the Dene tribes. Related figures in other tribes: Utakké (Carrier), Nesaru (Arikara), Gitchie Manitou (Chippewa) ref

Mukat: Creator deity, high god

“Cahuilla and other Sonoran tribes of southeast California and southwestern Arizona consider him dangerous; made the life of the ancients miserable, drove away their protector, Menily, goddess of the moon, and was eventually slain by his own creations after teaching them warfare. In the creation, Mukat and Temayuwat were born from the union of twin balls of lightning, which were the manifestations of Amnaa (Power) and Tukmiut (Night). Mukat and Temayuwat began a creative contest, in which Temayuwat was bested and fled with his ill-formed creation below the earth.” ref, ref

Divine Twins gods?

The Divine Twins are youthful horsemen, either gods or demigods, rescuers, and healers in Proto-Indo-European mythology. Often with mention of a female figure (their mother or their sister), two brothers are “Descendants” (sons or grandsons) of the Sky-God (Dyēus).” ref

“The Hero Twins (or God Boys) are recurring characters from the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The specifics of each myth vary from tribe to tribe, but each story has a pair of twins (usually with magical powers) who were born when their pregnant mother was killed by the tale’s antagonist. Twins were considered unnatural in many cultures of this region, with beliefs about them having supernatural abilities. Sometimes, the twins are separated at birth. Various versions have their mother’s killer leaving one where he could be easily be found by his family and the other deep in the wilderness so that one boy grew up civilized and the other wild. Eventually they become reunited and avenge the death of their mother. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca are culture heroes and creator deities of the Aztecs and are said to be brothers. They are often seen in competition with each other, like when the two fought over who would become the sun. They are also seen as allies however, as both are considered protectors of Earth. They are also depicted as having another brother, Xolotl. He is even shown as helping Quetzalcoatl returning the bones of the humans to the land of the living to bring them back to life.” ref

“The Twin Heroes share many similarities in the mythology of different tribes, but are different in their relationships with other mythological figures, their associations with stars or animal spirits, and the nature of the particular adventures they go on. In some traditions, the twins personified good and evil: one twin is good while the other is evil, but in others both are benevolent heroes. In some versions of this myth, the evil twin manipulates others into blaming his good brother for his misdeeds. The two brothers coexisted for a while, each making their own changes to the world. In the end, though, the Twin Gods fight each other, and the good brother prevails. In other traditions, the Twin Gods are not considered good or evil but instead represent day and night, summer and winter, and life and death. In some versions of that tradition, one is a trickster rather than a villain, and the brothers’ relationship is one of rivalry rather than enmity.” ref

Native American Magical twin

“The birth of twins is considered a notable event in many Native American cultures. In most cultures, twins are considered good luck, while in some, twins are considered spiritually powerful and were trained as medicine people. Twin gods or heroes are a common motif in the mythology of many North American tribes, and human twins were sometimes associated with these mythological figures. In some Northwest Coast tribes, such as the Kwakwaka’wakw, twins are believed to be blessed by the Salmon People and have special ceremonial roles in the Salmon Ceremony. In some Southwestern tribes, such as the Mojave, twins were considered supernatural visitors who were exempt from normal tribal taboos, and though that tradition is no longer commonly observed, twins are still seen as a special blessing in these tribes. Twins are not viewed positively in all tribes, however. In some South American cultures, twins are considered a bad omen or the result of black magic, and some parents have even abandoned their newborn twins due to this belief.” ref

Native American legends and traditional stories about twins.

Native American Twin Spirits

Amalivaca and Vochi (Cariban)
The God Boys (Caddo)
Hunahpu and Ixbalanque (Maya)
Keri and Kame (Bakairi)
The Little Thunders (Seminole)
Macunaima and Pia (Carib)
Monster Slayer and Child of Water (Navajo)
The Twin GodsGood Spirit and Bad Spirit (Iroquois)
The Twin HeroesLodge Boy and Spring Boy (Plains tribes)

Native American Twin Stories

Lodge-Boy and Thrown-Away:
    Crow legend about the two mythical twins.
The Twin Brothers  The Brothers Who Became Lightning And Thunder:
    Caddo legends about the twin heroes, Thunder and Lightning.
The Birth of Good and Evil:
    Oneida myth about Sky Woman’s twin grandchildren.
The Creation:
    Cayuga myth about Sky Woman and her twin sons Good Spirit and Bad Spirit.

 

The “two sons” of Abaangüí, god of the moon in the mythology of the Guarani Indians, climbed this chain until they reached the sky and remained there, turning into the sun and the moon.” ref

Kame (Kami): Creator god, Mythical twin

“Kame is one of the twin creator gods of the Bakairi tribe. Together with his brother Keri, Kame adapted the world for humans to live on. In other tribes: Mopo and Kujuli (Apalai)” ref

“Awonawilona. – Dual deity of the Zuñi Indians of New Mexico. He created a universe of nine layers. Earth, a large round island surrounded by oceans, is located on the central layer. The first people lived deep in the womb of Mother Earth ( Awitelin Tsta ). Then Father Sun ( Apoyan Tachi ) ordered his twin sons, the gods of war, to take them to earth because he was bored and had no one to pray to.” ref

Maya Hero Twins

“The Maya Hero Twins are the central figures of a narrative included within the colonial Kʼicheʼ document called Popol Vuh, and constituting the oldest Maya myth to have been preserved in its entirety. Called Hunahpu [hunaxˈpu] and Xbalanque [ʃɓalaŋˈke][2] in the Kʼicheʼ language, the Twins have also been identified in the art of the Classic Mayas (200–900 AD). The twins are often portrayed as complementary forces. The Twin motif recurs in many Native American mythologies; the Maya Twins, in particular, could be considered as mythical ancestors to the Maya ruling lineages.” ref

Catequil (A.k.a. Apocatequil, Apu Catequil) was the tutelar god of day and good, thunder, and lightning in northern Peruvian highlands. Catequil and his twin brother Piguerao were born from hatched eggs. Catequil considered a regional variant of god Illapa.” ref

“Hahgwehdiyu is the Iroquois god of goodness and light, as well as a creator god. He and his twin brother Hahgwehdaetgah, the god of evil, were children of Atahensic the Sky Woman (or Tekawerahkwa the Earth Woman), whom Hahgwehdaetgah killed in childbirth.” ref

“Mount St. Helens and other Cascade volcanoes. The best known of these is the Bridge of the Gods story told by the Klickitat people of the Pacific Northwest.. The chief of all the gods “Great Spirit” and his two sons, WyEast (Mt. Hood) and Pahtoe, or Klickitat (Mt. Adams).” ref, ref

“Asdzą́ą́ Nádleehé is one of the creation spirits of the Navajo. She helped create the sky and the earth. Changing Woman, mother of twins Monster Slayer and Born for Water (fathered by the sun).” ref

“A zemi or cemi (Taíno: semi [sɛmi]) was a deity or ancestral spirit, and a sculptural object housing the spirit, among the Taíno people of the Caribbean. Cemi’no or Zemi’no is a plural word for the spirits. Supreme creator god and a fertility goddess. The creator god is Yúcahu Maórocoti and he governs the growth of the staple food, the cassava.” ref 

Twins? Yúcahu was the supreme deity of the Taíno people. The three names are thought to represent the Great Spirit’s epithets. He was the supreme deity or zemi of the Pre-Columbian Taíno people along with his mother Atabey who was his feminine counterpart.” ref

“The Taíno had a well developed creation myth, which was mostly passed down via oral tradition. According to this account, in the beginning there was only Atabey, who created the heavens. However, there was still a void, where nothingness prevailed. The heavens were inactive and any action was meaningless. Earth and the other cosmic entities laid barren. Despite being dominated by darkness, Atabey herself failed to notice that this universe was incomplete. Eventually she decided to create two new deities, Yucáhu and Guacar, from magic and intangible elements. Atabey now felt confident that her creation could be completed and left it in charge of her sons. Yucáhu took over as a creation deity, becoming a universal architect and gathering the favour of his mother. From his dwelling in the heavens, he contemplated and awoke the Earth from its slumber. As part of this process, two new deities emerged from a cave. Boinael and Maroya, controlling the sun and moon respectively, which were tasked with illuminating the new world day and night.” ref

“Hahgwehdiyu is the Iroquois god of goodness and light, as well as a creator god. He and his twin brother Hahgwehdaetgah, the god of evil, were children of Atahensic the Sky Woman (or Tekawerahkwa the Earth Woman), whom Hahgwehdaetgah killed in childbirth.” ref

Keri and Kame (Bakairi Twin Creator Gods)

“Type: Indian culture hero, creator god, transformer, magical twin, Related figures in other tribes: Mopo and Ikujuri (Apalai).” ref

“Ikujuri and Mopo are the “Two” Creator gods of the Apalai and Wayana tribes. Together, they created humans, adapted the world for them to live on, and taught them Native culture. Related figures in other tribes: Keri and Kami (Bakairi).” ref

“Makunaima: High God, Creator, “God” or “Great Spirit” but not personified. Tribal affiliation: Akawaio, Pemon, Macusi, Carib. Related figures in other tribes: Kururumany (Arawak). The Sun, the Frog, and the Fire-Sticks: A Guyanese Carib legend about Makunaima and his twin brother Pia.” ref

“Mopo and Kujuri are the “Two” Creator gods of the Apalai tribe. Together, Mopo and his brother created humans, adapted the world for them to live on, and taught them Apalai culture. Related figures in other tribes: Keri and Kame (Bakairi).” ref

“Sky Woman (Ataensic, Atahensic, Ataentsic): Mother goddess, Sky spirit, Grandmother Moon, the Woman Who Fell from the Sky=Earth-Diver. Sky Woman is the Iroquois mother goddess who descended to earth by falling through a hole in the sky. She is either the grandmother or mother of the twin culture heroes Sky-Holder and Flint, sometimes known as Good Spirit and Bad Spirit.” ref

Kokumthena – Blackfoot tribe

“Kokumthena is somewhat unique in that she is female (the Blackfoot tribe have a married couple, Old-Man and Old-Lady, in this role; all the other Algonquian tribes we know of have male Transformer figures.) In Shawnee legends, Kokumthena is depicted as an old woman (her name means “our grandmother”). Paboth’kwe (or Papoothkwe) is another Shawnee name for this matriarchal figure, meaning “cloud woman.” Perhaps this may be an indication that she is related to Sky Woman of the Iroquois tribes. Related figures in other tribes: Sky Woman (Iroquois), Nookomis (Anishinabe), Old Lady (Blackfoot), Grandmother Woodchuck (Abenaki), Nogami (Mi’kmaq).” ref

Sky-Holder (Taronhiawagon): Creator, High god

“Sky-Holder is the grandson of Sky-Woman– either the same as or equivalent to the Huron Ioskeha, creator of the human race. In other tribes: Ioskeha (Huron), Good Spirit (Cayuga), Manabush (Anishinabe).” ref

Maple Sapling (Ioskeha, Little Sprout): Magical twin

“In Huron mythology and the mythology of many Iroquois communities, Ioskeha or Maple Sapling is one of the twin grandsons of Ataensic, the Sky Woman. Ioskeha was born normally, while his brother Tawiscara (Flint) burst through his mother’s side and killed her. Related figures in other tribes: Sky Holder (Iroquois), Good Spirit (Cayuga), Nanabozho (Anishinabe).” ref

“Evaki is the Bakairi night goddess, aunt of the twin culture heroes Keri and Kame. Evaki has the responsibility of taking the sun out of the jar it is kept in every morning and putting it back away at night.” ref

Old Man Coyote (Akba Atatdia): Native Creatorhigh godcoyote spirit

“Coyote played the role of both Creator and trickster in Crow mythology. In some versions of the Crow creation myth there were actually two Coyotes, the Old Man Coyote who created people, animals, and the earth, and a regular Coyote who had adventures and got into trouble. In other versions, they were one and the same.” ref

Piai: Creator god, Medicine spirit, Mythical twin

“In some Carib traditions, Piai is the twin brother of the god Makunaima. They are said to be sons of the Sun. Piai is the father of medicine, and his name has come to mean “medicine man” in many Cariban languages.” ref

“Amalivaca is a benevolent transformer-type demigod from the mythology of the Tamanac and other Cariban tribes. Amalivaca shapes the world for the Caribs and teaches them how to live. In some Carib traditions he is known as Sigu or Sigoo and considered to be the son of the high god Tamosi; in others, he has a twin brother named Vochi who helps him in his work. Related figures in other tribes: Sigo (Akawaio), Kururumany (Arawak).” ref

“Charred Body is a Hidatsa hero who led the people to the earth from their original home in the sky. Charred Body was the uncle of the sacred twins Lodge-Boy and Thrown-Away. In some Crow legends his name is given as the father of the sacred twins, without the Hidatsa story of migration and murder.” ref 

Qone: Transformer, Culture hero, Moon god

“Qone is a Transformer figure, a type of hero common to the mythology of many Northwest Coast tribes. He changed himself into the moon and his younger brother into the sun. Many Native storytellers today refer to the two magical heroes interchangeably. In other tribes: Suku (Alsea), Cikla (Chinook).” ref

Glooskap “liar”

“Glooscap is the benevolent culture hero of the Wabanaki tribes of northeast New England. And sometimes also had a brother (either an older brother Mikumwesu or Mateguas, a younger brother Malsom, or an adopted brother Marten.) According to legend, Glooscap got this name after lying about his secret weakness to an evil spirit (in some stories, his own brother) and therefore escaping from a murder plot.” ref

The Miraculous Twins

 “South American legend about the birth and life of the Bakairi Indian gods Keri and Kame.” ref

Shikla (Cikla)

“Shikla is a Transformer type of hero common to the mythology of many Northwest Coast tribes. In some versions, there was one Shikla, while in others, there were two. Related figures in other tribes: Seuku (Alsea), Qone (Chehalis).” ref

Wisakedjak (Wesakechak): Culture heroTransformertrickster

“Wisakedjak is the benevolent culture hero of the Cree tribe. Wisakedjak was specifically created by the Great Spirit to be a teacher for humankind. In others, he was the divine son of the Earth. And in other legends, he was the son of a Rolling Head monster, who was forced to kill his violent mother to survive. In many traditions Wisakedjak’s younger brother was the Wolf, Mahihkan, who was killed by Water Lynxes or Horned Serpents, earning them the bitter enmity of Wisakedjak.” ref

Wisaka (Wizaka): Culture heroTransformertrickster

“Wisaka is the benevolent culture hero of the prairie Algonquian tribes. The details of Wisaka’s life vary somewhat from community to community. Most often he is said to have been directly created by the Great Spirit. (Some Kickapoo communities in Mexico identify Wisaka as the son of the Great Spirit, though this may be an influence from Christianity.) In other traditions, Wisaka is born of a virgin mother and raised by his Grandmother Earth. In some stories Wisaka is said to have created the first humans out of mud, while in others, the Great Spirit created people modelled on Wisaka, who then became their Elder Brother. In many tribal traditions, Wisaka has a younger brother named Chipiapoos or Yapata, who was killed by water spirits and became the ruler of the dead. Related: Wesakechak (Cree), Nanabojo (Anishinabe), Glooscap (Wabanaki), Napi (Blackfoot).” ref

The Spider Twins: Achumawi story about a family of spiders helping the animals to end winter.” ref

“Achumawi (of northeastern California)  housing, food sources, and seasonal movements therefore also varied. In the summer, the Achomawi band, and other upper Pit River bands usually lived in cone-shaped homes covered in tule-mat and spent time under shade or behind windbreaks of brush or mats.They have a patrilineal society, with inheritance and descent passed through the paternal line. The traditional chiefdom was handed down to the eldest son. When children were born, the parents were put into seclusion and had food restrictions while waiting for their baby’s umbilical cord to fall off. If twins were born, one of them was killed at birth.” ref

Achumawi Religion

“Adolescent boys sought guardian spirits called tinihowi and both genders experienced puberty ceremonies. A victory dance was also held in the community, which involved the toting of a head of the enemy with women participating in the celebration. Elder men would fast to increase the run of fish and women and children would eat out of sight of the river to encourage fish populations.  Spiritual presences were identified with mountain peaks, certain springs, and other sacred places.” ref

“Achomawi shamans maintained the health of the community, serving as doctors. Shamans would focus on “pains” which were physical and spiritual. These pains were believed to have been put on people by other, hostile shamans. After curing the pain, the shaman would then swallow it. Both men and women held the role of shaman. A shaman was said to have a fetish called kaku by Kroeber or qaqu by Dixon. Kroeber relied upon Dixon’s work in this part of California. (The letter q was supposed to represent a velar spirant x, as in Bach, in the system generally used at that time for writing indigenous American languages. The Achumawi Dictionary does not have this word.) Dixon described the qaqu as a bundle of feathers which were believed to grow in rural places, rooted in the earth, and which, when secured, dripped of blood constantly. It was used as an oracle to locate pains in the body. Quartz crystal was also revered within the community and was obtained by diving into a waterfall. In the pool in the waterfall the diver would find a spirit (like a mermaid) who would lead the diver to a cave where the crystals grew. A giant moth cocoon, which symbolized the “heart of the world”, was another fetish, and harder to obtain.” ref

“In their networks with neighboring cultures Achomawi exchanged their furs, basketry, steatite, rabbit-skin blankets, food and acorn in return for goods such as epos root, clam beads, obsidian and other goods. Through these commercial dealings goods from the Wintun (iqpiimí – ″Wintun people″, númláákiname – Nomlaki (Central Wintu people)), Modoc and possibly the Paiute (aapʰúy – ″stranger″) were transported by the Achomawi. Eventually they would also trade for horses with the Modoc. The Achomawi used beads for money, specifically dentalia.” ref

Achomawi Puberty rites

“A girl would begin her puberty ritual by having her ears pierced by her father or another relative. She would then be picked up, dropped, and then hit with an old basket, before running away. During this part, her father would pray to the mountains for her. The girl would return in the evening with a load of wood, another symbol of women’s roles within the community, like the basket. She would then build a fire in front of her house and dance around it throughout the night, with relatives participating; around the fire or inside the house. Music would accompany the dance, made by a deer hoof rattle. During the ritual time, she would have herbs stuffed up her nose to avoid smelling venison being cooked. In the morning, she would be picked up and dropped again, and she would run off with the deer hoof rattle. This repeated for five days and nights. On the fifth night, she would return from her run to be sprinkled with fir leaves and bathed, completing the ritual.” ref

“Boys’ puberty rites were similar to the girls ritual but adds shamanistic elements. The boys ears are pierced, and then he is hit with a bowstring and runs away to fast and bathe in a lake or spring. While he is gone, his father prays for the mountains and the Deer Woman to watch over the boy. In the morning, he returns, lighting fires during his trip home and eats outside the home and then runs away again. He stays several nights away, lighting fires, piling up stones and drinking through a reed so that his teeth would not come into contact with water. If he sees an animal on the first night in the lake or spring or dream of an animal; that animal would become his personal protector. If the boy has a vision like this, he will become a shaman.” ref

The First Rainbow (with Spider Woman, Coyote, Silver Gray Fox, and the Spider Twins) – Achomawi Myth

“Sixty little spider children shivered as they slept. The snow had fallen every day for months. All the animals were cold, hungry, and frightened. Food supplies were almost gone. No one knew what to do. Blue Jay and Redheaded Woodpecker sang and danced for Silver Gray Fox, the creator, who floats above the clouds. Since Silver Gray Fox, had made the whole world with a song and a dance, Blue jay and Woodpecker hoped to be answered with blue skies. But the snow kept falling.” ref

“Finally, the animals decided to ask Coyote. Coyote had been around a long time, almost since the beginning. They thought that he might know how to reach Silver Gray Fox. They went to the cave where Coyote was sleeping, told him their troubles, and asked for help. “Grrrrowwwlll…go away,” grumbled Coyote, “and let me think.” ref

“Coyote stuck his head into the cold air outside and thought till he caught an idea. He tried singing in little yelps and loud yowls to Silver Gray Fox. Coyote sang and sang, but Silver Gray Fox didn’t listen, or didn’t want to. After all, it was Coyote’s mischief-making when the world was new that had caused Silver Gray Fox to go away beyond the clouds in the first place. Coyote thought he’d better think some more.” ref

“Suddenly he saw Spider Woman swinging down on a silky thread from the top of the tallest tree in the forest. Spider Woman’s been on Earth a long, long time, Coyote thought. She’s very wise. I’ll ask her what to do. Coyote went to the tree and lifted his ears to Spider Woman. “Spider Woman, O wise weaver, O clever one,” called Coyote in his sweetest voice. “We’re all cold and hungry and everyone’s afraid this winter will never end. Silver Gray Fox didn’t seem to notice. Can you help?” asked Coyote.” ref

“Spider Woman swayed her shining black body back and forth, back and forth, thinking and thinking, thinking and thinking. Her eight black eyes sparkled when she spoke, “I know how to reach Silver Gray Fox, Coyote, but I’m not the one for the work. Everyone will have to help. You’ll need my two youngest children, too. They’re little and light as dandelion fluff, and the fastest spinners in my web.” Spider Woman called up to her two littlest ones. “Spinnnnnn! Spinnnnnn!” ref

“They came down fast, each spinning on eight little legs, two fine, black twin Spider Boys, full of curiosity and fun. Spider Woman said, “My dear little quick ones, are you ready for a great adventure?” “Yes! Yes! We’re ready!” they cried. Spider Woman told them her plan, and the Spider Boys set off with Coyote in the snow. They hadn’t gone far when they met two White-Footed Mouse Brothers rooting around for seeds to eat. Coyote told them Spider Woman’s plan. “Will you help?” he asked. “Yes! Yes! We’ll help!” they squeaked.” ref

“So, they all traveled the trail towards Mount Shasta until they met Weasel Man looking hungry and even leaner than usual. Coyote told Weasel Man his plan. “Will you help?” asked Coyote. “Of course,” rasped Weasel Man, who joined them on the trail. Before long they came across Red Fox Woman swishing her big fluffy tail through the bushes. “Will you help?” asked Coyote. “Of course, I’ll come,” crooned Red Fox Woman. Then Rabbit Woman poked her head out of her hole. “I’ll come too.” She sneezed, shivering despite her thick fur.” ref

“Meadowlark wrapped a winter shawl around her wings, and trudged after the others along the trail to the top of Mount Shasta. The snow had stopped, but the sky was still cloudy. On top of Mount Shasta, Coyote barked, “Will our two best archers step forward?” The two White Footed Mouse Brothers proudly lifted their bows. “Everyone listen,” barked Coyote. “If any one of us is only half-hearted, Spider Woman’s plan will fail.” ref

“To get through the clouds to Silver Gray Fox, we must each share our powers, our thoughts, our dreams, our strength, and our songs whole-heartedly. Now, you White-Footed Mouse Brothers, I want you to shoot arrows at exactly the same spot in the sky.” Turning to the others, Coyote said, “Spider Boys, start spinning spider silk as fast as you can. Weasel Man, White-Footed Mouse Brothers, Red Fox Woman, Rabbit Woman, and I will sing and make music. We must sing with all our might or the Spider Boys won’t make it.” “One!” called Coyote. Everyone got ready. “Two!” counted out Coyote. The animals drew in deep breaths.” ref

“The Mouse Brothers pulled back their bowstrings. “Three!” said the Coyote. Two arrows shot straight up and stuck at the same spot in the clouds. “Whiff! Wiff! Wiff Wiff!”, sang the White Footed Mouse Brothers. “Yiyipyipla!”, sang Red Fox Woman. “Wowooooolll!” sang Coyote. Rabbit Woman shook her magic rattle. Weasel Man beat his very old and worn elk-hide drum. The Spider Boys hurled out long lines of spider silk, weaving swiftly with all their legs. The animals sang up a whirlwind of sound to lift the spider silk until it caught on the arrows in the clouds. Then the Spider Twins scurried up the lines of silk and scrambled through the opening. All the while, down below, the animals continued singing, rattling and drumming. The little Spiders sank, breathless, onto the clouds.” ref

“Silver Gray Fox spied them and called out, “What are you two doing here?” The Spider Boys bent low on their little legs and answered. “Silver Gray Fox, we bring greetings from our mother, Spider Woman, and all the creatures of the world below. We’ve come to ask if you’d please let the sun shine again. The whole world is cold. Everyone is hungry. Everyone is afraid spring will not return, ever.” They were so sincere and polite that Silver Gray Fox became gentler, and asked, “How did you two get up here?” ref

“The Spider Boys said, “Listen, can you hear the people singing? Can you hear the drum and rattle?” Silver Gray Fox heard the drum and rattle and the people singing. When the Spider Boys finished telling their story, Silver Gray Fox was pleased and told them, “I’m happy when creatures use their powers together. I’m especially glad to hear that Coyote’s been helping too. Your mother, Spider Woman, made a good plan. To reward all your hard work, I’ll create a sign to show that the skies will clear. And you may also help, but first picture the sun shining bright.” The Spider Boys thought hard and saw the sun sending out fierce rays in all directions.” ref

“Now, where sun rays meet the damp air” said Silver Gray Fox, “Picture a stripe of red, red as Woodpecker’s head. Add a stripe of blue nearby, blue as Blue Jay’s blue.” The Spider Boys thought hard, and great stripes appeared of red and blue. Silver Gray Fox chanted. “Now, in between, add stripes of orange, yellow and green!” The Spider Boys thought of this and dazzling their eyes, a beautiful arc of colors could be seen across the whole sky above the clouds. It was the very first rainbow.” ref

“Meanwhile, down below, beneath the clouds, the animals and people were so cold, hungry, and tired that they had stopped singing and drumming. Spider Woman missed her two youngest children. Each day she missed them more. She blamed Coyote for the trouble. So did the other animals. Coyote slipped away silent, lonely and sad. Above, on the clouds, the twins rested. Their legs ached and their minds were tired. Silver Gray Fox said, “You did what I asked and kept it secret. That’s very difficult, so I’m giving you a special reward. On wet mornings, when the sun starts to shine, you’ll see what I mean.” ref

“Then the Spider Boys spun down to Earth, and ran back to their mother as fast as they could. Spider Woman cried for joy and wrapped all her legs around her two littlest children. Their fifty-eight sisters and brothers jumped up and down with happiness. All the animals gathered around to hear the Spider Boys’ story. When they finished, the Spider Boys cried, “Look up!” Everyone looked up to see that the clouds had drifted apart and there, like a bridge between the earth and the sky was a radiant arch – they could still see the very first rainbow. The sun began to warm the earth. Shoots of grass pushed up through the melting snow.” ref

“Meadowlark blew her silver whistle of spring across the valley, calling streams and rivers to awake. Coyote came out of hiding, and racing to a distant hilltop, he gave a long, long howl of joy. The animals held a great feast to honor the rainbow, Silver Gray Fox, Spider Woman, the Spider Twins, Coyote, and the hard work everyone had done together. To this day, after the rain, when the sun comes out, dewdrops on spider webs shine with tiny rainbows. This is the spiders’ special reward.” ref

Spider Grandmother (Koyangwuti or Kokyangwuti): Hopi or “Old Spider Woman”

“Spider Grandmother is the special benefactor of the Hopi tribe. In the Hopi creation myths, Spider Grandmother created humans from clay (with the assistance of Sotuknang and/or Tawa), and was also responsible for leading them to the Fourth World (the present Earth.) The Spider Woman and the Twins: Hopi legend about the birth of Spider Grandmother and her first creations.” ref

Xōchiquetzal (Her Twin was Xochipilli god) weaving goddess- Aztec

“In Aztec mythologyXochiquetzal, also called Ichpochtli, meaning “maiden”, was a goddess associated with concepts of fertility, beauty, and female sexual power, serving as a protector of young mothers and a patroness of pregnancy, childbirth, and the crafts practised by women such as weaving and embroidery. In pre-Hispanic Maya culture, a similar figure is Goddess I.

In Classical Nahuatl morphology, the first element in a compound modifies the second, and thus the goddess’ name can literally be taken to mean “flower precious feather”, or ”flower quetzal feather”. Her alternative name, Ichpōchtli, corresponds to a personalized usage of ichpōchtli (“maiden, young woman”).” ref

“Worshippers wore animal and flower masks at a festival, held in her honor every eight years. Her twin was Xochipilli and her husband was Tlaloc, until Tezcatlipoca kidnapped her and she was forced to marry him. At one point, she was also married to Centeotl and Xiuhtecuhtli. By Mixcoatl, she was the mother of Quetzalcoatl. Anthropologist Hugo Nutini identifies her with the Virgin of Ocotlan in his article on patron saints in Tlaxcala. she was also the aztec goddesss called the great goddess or teotihuacan spider woman.” ref

Diana Roman twin goddess of hunt

“Diana (short for: deivā Jāna, literally: the Divine Jana) is the Roman goddess of hunt. She is one of a pair of twins born to Apollo. Her twin brother was Janus. She preferred to stay on Earth, roaming the wilderness with her nymph companions, suiting her role as goddess of the hunt. She was also the goddes of the moon and childbirth. The name Diana is cognate to ZeusDyaus, and Jupiter. Diana is also heavily related to the goddesses Trivia and Luna, as originally they were aspects of Diana herself – a triple goddess through and through. During the middle ages and because of the goddess’s relation to women and to the underworld through her aspect (Trivia), she became an icon for witches and there were even new myths written about her by modern Wiccans and pagans – such as the story of Aradia.” ref

“Diana is equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, and absorbed much of Artemis’ mythology early in Roman history, including a birth on the island of Delos to parents Jupiter and Latona, and a twin brother, Apollo.” ref

The Celestial Jaguar – Tupi-Guarani

“According to a version of the legend, the mother of the heavenly twins, known as Sun and Moon, was killed by the Celestial Jaguars. The twins were raised by the jaguars until a bird told them how their mother had been killed. The twins went on a rampage, killing all jaguars except one which was pregnant and the mother of today’s primitive jaguars. Now, jaguars are a wild beast that are to be feared by the Guarani. It is common for the animal to be part of the beginning and end of a person’s life. The meat will be eaten by a child’s mother while she is pregnant and the jaguars themselves represent the souls of the dead in temples. Those that are sick, elderly, and slow-moving have also been known to have been left behind to the jaguars.” ref

In classical antiquity, Cancer was the location of the Sun on the northern solstice (June 21). During the first century CE, axial precession shifted it into Gemini. In 1990, the location of the Sun at the northern solstice moved from Gemini into Taurus, where it will remain until the 27th century CE and then move into Aries. The Sun will move through Gemini, next, from June 21 to July 20 through 2062.” ref

“Gemini is prominent in the winter skies of the northern Hemisphere and is visible the entire night in December–January. The easiest way to locate the constellation is to find its two brightest stars Castor and Pollux eastward from the familiar V-shaped asterism (the open cluster Hyades) of Taurus and the three stars of Orion’s Belt (Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka). Another way is to mentally draw a line from the Pleiades star cluster located in Taurus and the brightest star in Leo, Regulus. In doing so, an imaginary line that is relatively close to the ecliptic is drawn, a line which intersects Gemini roughly at the midpoint of the constellation, just below Castor and Pollux. When the Moon moves through Gemini, its motion can easily be observed in a single night as it appears first west of Castor and Pollux, then aligns, and finally appears east of them.” ref

“In Babylonian astronomy, the stars Castor and Pollux were known as the Great Twins. The Twins were regarded as minor gods and were called Meshlamtaea and Lugalirra, meaning respectively ‘The One who has arisen from the Underworld’ and the ‘Mighty King’. Both names can be understood as titles of Nergal, the major Babylonian god of plague and pestilence, who was king of the Underworld.” ref

“In Greek mythology, Gemini was associated with the myth of Castor and Pollux, the children of Leda and Argonauts both. Pollux was the son of Zeus, who seduced Leda, while Castor was the son of Tyndareus, king of Sparta and Leda’s husband. Castor and Pollux were also mythologically associated with St. Elmo’s fire in their role as the protectors of sailors. When Castor died, because he was mortal, Pollux begged his father Zeus to give Castor immortality, and he did, by uniting them together in the heavens.” ref

“Gemini is dominated by Castor and Pollux, two bright stars that appear relatively very closely together forming an o shape, encouraging the mythological link between the constellation and twinship. The twin above and to the right (as seen from the Northern Hemisphere) is Castor, whose brightest star is α Gem; it is a second-magnitude star and represents Castor’s head. The twin below and to the left is Pollux, whose brightest star is β Gem (more commonly called Pollux); it is of the first magnitude and represents Pollux’s head. Furthermore, the other stars can be visualized as two parallel lines descending from the two main stars, making it look like two figures. H. A. Rey has suggested an alternative to the traditional visualization that connected the stars of Gemini to show twins holding hands.” ref

“In Chinese astronomy, the stars that correspond to Gemini are located in two areas: the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎, Xī Fāng Bái Hǔ) and the Vermillion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, Nán Fāng Zhū Què). In some cultures, the twin in Gemini refers to ‘the unborn twin’ and represents a spiritual or dual self that exists within. The modern constellation Gemini lies across two of the quadrants, symbolized by the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎, Xī Fāng Bái Hǔ) and the Vermilion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, Nán Fāng Zhū Què), that divide the sky in traditional Chinese uranography. The name of the western constellation in modern Chinese is 雙子座 (shuāng zǐ zuò), meaning “the twin constellation.” ref, ref

The Divine Twins

Gemini, the sign of The Divine Twins. We can find the concept of The Divine Twins around the world. It is a powerful concept that, like its astrological equivalent, Gemini, takes on many forms. The Twins are depicted as two beings. Men, women. A man and woman. Two figures with multiple genders, or are beyond gender. Moreover, they are often interchangeable, with interchangeable genders, roles, and powers. I cannot say with any certainty which of these concepts was “first,” but it doesn’t matter, as they all illuminate facets in each other.” ref

Nearly all ancient civilizations recognized biologically occurring twins as holy, unique, blessed, or cursed.

“Whether identical, fraternal or conjoined, the birth of a set of twins was a significant occasion. There are many superstitions around twins. Many groups see twins as “astral” in nature, coming from or affiliated with “the stars.” However, as Holy archetypes go, the Twins are almost always closer in their behavior and habits to humanity than many many other deities.” ref

“There are some nearly universal consistencies among the holy Twins we see in various myths and religions around the planet. Duality and multiplicity are at the heart of much of our Twin symbolism. Further, almost all Twins represent polarities, and two sides of the same coin; light/dark, good/evil, mortal/divine, male/female, etc.” ref

Another symbol connected to Gemini and the Divine Twins is the horse.

“Even the Pegasus and the Unicorn connect to the Twins. The famous Greek twins that the constellation Gemini depicts, Castor and Pollux, were known far and wide for their horsemanship. Other twins have mothers or fathers associated with horses. Epona, for example, is a Gaulish/Celtic Horse Goddess who ran a race against horses and won. She then died on the finish line as She gave birth to twins. The good folks of Mackinac Island in Michigan still worship Her every year in late Spring. The island allows no cars. Horses are still the main form of transportation.” ref

Many Divine Twins have split parentage.

“Many myths feature one mother and two fathers. Or, the twins are born in two different ways, with one born naturally and one coming from an egg or some other unusual source. This split parentage speaks directly to the duality nature of these archetypes. Even from their genesis they are the same but different. Often their Holy parent is a Sky-Related Deity, like storm, air, lightning, wind, thunder, and in particularly Sun Deities. Many Twins are the natural siblings and dual protectors of Solar Maidens in particular.” ref

The Mayan Hero Twins

The Mayan Hero Twins are named Hunahpu (One-Blowgunner) and Xbalanque (Jaguar-Sun, Jaguar-Deer, or Hidden-Sun). These Twins are a great example of twins that include many symbols of this archetype. They represent complimentary forces – life/death, sky/earth, day/night, sun/moon, male/female. Also, the twins experienced a harsh pregnancy and upbringing. They often use cleverness or trickery to solve their problems.” ref

“The twins are bird hunters and known for their hypnotic dances. While fighting the God Seven Macaw (Vucub Caquix), Hunahpu loses an arm (Gemini rules arms). At one point in their myth, they challenge the Gods to a game to retrieve the head and body of their father. All in all, the Gods pull many tricks on them, including attempting to kill the twins. The Gods succeed, but the twins are brought back to life in a river. At another point in the myth, one twin loses his head but continues to play ball. Ultimately, the twins win; they retrieve their father’s body and kill the Gods.” ref

Yoruba Divine Twins

“In Yoruba land pantheons, the Orishas Ibeji are the Holy Twins. In the diaspora Yoruba of Latin America, these twins are equal to same as Saints Cosmas and Saint Damian. Yoruba land peoples believe twins are magical. And the great ancestor God-Father Shango, who oversees thunder, lightning, justice, dance, and virility guards them. In these communities, if one twin dies, it is a bad omen, not only for the family but for the community as well. The family will ask a Babalawo (an Ifa Priest) to carve a wooden replacement for the lost twin. The family then dresses it and cares for it as a member of the family. In their myth, the 1st twin is Taiwo, 2nd is Kehinde (Omokehinde), the elder. The 2nd twin is the older twin. Taiwo goes first to make sure the world is fit for Kehinde.” ref

“For the Dahomey people, this was Lisa and Mawu, the twin/lovers who birthed the universe together over four days as the androgynous figure Mawu-Lisa. And the Dogon Tribe sees them as the Nummo Twins, who are both androgynous and hermaphroditic. Both figures express any, all and no genders, in turn. The Nummo Twins are Shapeshifters and connected to the Serpent. They are usually depicted as Conjoined twins and are described as the Mothers of the Earth.” ref

“In Haitian Vodoun, these twins are Marassa Jumeaux. They are polygendered children, but more ancient than any Loa. They represent and govern issues concerning astronomical and astrological learning, divine power vs. human impotence, justice, truth, reason, and mystery.” ref

The European world also has its Divine Twins 

  • “The Latvian Dieva dēli, who were the sons of God
  • Sicilian Palici; one legend claims the Palici are the sons of Zeus, or possibly Hephaestus, but another story insists the Palici were the sons of the Sicilian deity Adrianus.Ancients associated them with geysers and the underworld.
  • Germanic Gods Alcis, a pair of young male brothers worshiped by the Naharvali.
  • Italian Wolf-Gods Romulus and Remus, whose story tells the events that led to the founding of Rome.
  • Anglo-Saxon warrior brothers Hengist and Horsa, who’s names mean “Stallion” and “Horse” respectively.
    From Wikipedia: “On farmhouses in Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein, horse-head gables were referred to as “Hengst und Hors” as late as around 1875. 
    Rudolf Simeknotes that these horse-head gables can still be seen today, and says that the horse-head gables confirm that Hengist and Horsa were originally considered mythological, horse-shaped beings. Martin Litchfield West comments that the horse heads may have been remnants of pagan religious practices in the area.”
  • Norse Freyr and Freyjawere the twin son and daughter of the Sea God, Njord. Both were deities of fertility.
  • Slavic Lada and Lado, female and male personifications of beauty and fertility who were seen as twins, and as mother and son.
  • Welsh Lleu Llaw Gyffes and Dylan ail Don, twin brothers who are born when Arianrhod is tested for virginity. Dylan takes on the nature of a sea creature when he comes into contact with water, while Lleu is related to the pan-Celtic plural hero god Lugus. In the related Irish story of the birth of Lugh Lámfada, one version indicates that Lugh was a surviving triplet, whose twin brothers were drowned. Some interpreters of the legend view Dylan as representing darkness and Llew connected to light.” ref

The Solar connection is essential and oft repeated.

“Many, many religions and myth cycles have an image of The Sun being pulled across the sky by a chariot drawn by two horses. Often the horses are twins or exact opposites from each other. For example, the Chariot card from Tarot depicts this image nicely. Interestingly, the Chariot card connects to Cancer, the sign directly after Gemini.” ref

“In particular, The Twins have some specific roles they play in nearly every myth around the world:

-Protectors at Sea

-Battle Protectors

-Protecting Oaths and Contracts

-Magical Healers

-Fertility

-Assisting at Birth

-Dances and Dancing

-Founding Cities

Ultimately, in true Gemini style, The Divine Twins stand for multifold experiences.” ref

“The Divine Twins represent the duality and multiplicity we experience as we shed old forms of ourselves. We are that person, but they are dying. We are the new person, but they’re not quite here yet. And we are the beings in between, shapeshifting and shedding skins.” ref

“They express the camaraderie we feel when we find our “twin” in a stranger, who suddenly becomes a best friend, a best Judy, a “sister from another mister” or “a brother from another mother.” Maybe we actually look alike, but often what we mean by this phrase is that this person feels that close to us, like someone who knows us better than we know ourselves, knows us from the inside out, and thinks about and sees the world just like us.” ref

“You share clothes, you share lovers, you share passwords. These are our “ride or die bitches,” and we often get into some of our craziest capers with them. We might feel like we would sacrifice a lot for them. We might even face (or tempt) death with them. They see our struggles, they see where we screw up, they see our messy, and they are here for all of it.” ref

The Divine Twins are also two people after union. They became a single being, and now have parted again, but with an intimate knowledge of each other.

“There is the experience of seeing ourselves in other people, and there is also the experience of seeing other people in ourselves. The Divine Twins represent the duality and multiplicity we experience as we shed old forms of self and reveal new ones during personal growth work like self-care, cord-cutting, and other profoundly altering ritual forms. There is our current self, but they are changing. Also, we’re the new person forming, but they’re not quite here yet. And we are the beings in between, shapeshifting and shedding skins.” ref

The Divine Twins also represent a profoundly holy concept. As above, so below.

“One twin divine, one twin mortal. These are the polarities of ourselves. Our mundane, extremely faulty mortal self is, in fact, the twin of our divine self, our soul, the Holy Guardian Angel, the Ka, etc. These are the same, but different, but the same. And, as it is expressed in spiritual practices stretching back through time, if you affect the spiritual body the mortal body will feel it, but also that the inverse is true. If you affect the mortal body, the spiritual twin will react.” ref

“And in the rhythmic pulse of infinite phases experienced while moving between these two extremes – mortal and holy – we discover our lives. Who we are. What we are. How we deal with and integrate the blessings and hardships introduced by our spiritual battles and our mortal experiences. The Sun, balanced between to spinning wheels. Along with the Chariot card, we can work with The Lovers card, as it is ruled by Gemini, and is a fantastic magical image for all these ideas.” ref

“This is the deep magical teaching of working with the Divine Twins as we leave Spring and Beltane season and head into Summer. Finally, we are getting some feedback on our full immersion of the real world. Being born unto the Earth plane, we are married to the consequences of our actions. We are married to reality. And now we are meeting our real world self, and learning to love them.” ref

“Most of the old Pagan religions in Europe were part of an original source: Proto-Indo-European religion. We can discover how the primordial religion looked like by comparing myths of different cultures and ethnic groups. Through this method, scholars have been able to reconstruct the entire pantheon of the primeval gods and goddesses.” ref

“One of the central figures in the Indo-European pantheon is the Sky Father. He is also known by his reconstructed Proto-Indo-European term, *Dyeus. The patriarch of the gods has an intricate web of family relatives — as it is well evinced, for example, through both Vedic and Greek mythologies. Among these relatives, the sons of *Dyeus are probably the most relevant ones. They are the divine Twins.” ref

“There is an unusual academic consensus around the ancient Indo-European origins of the divine Twins. It is considered one of the few original myths within the primordial Proto-Indo-European pantheon. We can find the same divine Twin figures in Greek, Vedic, Roman and Baltic mythology. They are the original “Sons of God.” ref

Creation Myth of Twins

“Key figures in Dogon religion are the twins Nummo and Nommo, primal spirits of Dogon ancestors, sometimes seen as deities. These are hermaphroditic water creatures, seen similarly to water deities (to-vodun) in West African vodun; they can be depicted with a human body and a fish tail. Nommo is supposed to be the first living creature created by the supreme god Amma. Shortly after his creation, Nommo spawned into four pairs of twins, with one pair defying the order established by creator Amma. To restore order, the god Amma sacrificed another creature, whose body he cut up and scattered throughout creation. A shrine for the god Amma was to be built at each place where a fragment of the body landed.” ref

“The cult of the god Amma – like the entire Dogon religion – is closely tied to the Bandiagara cliff where the Dogon live. The cult of the god Amma is geographically defined by this cliff, it is not practiced elsewhere. The Bandiagara cliff is a sandstone terrain fault approximately 150 km long, reaching a height of up to 500 m in some places. The Dogon inhabit mud villages built on the upper edge of the cliff, villages directly attached to the cliff at its lower edge, but also at various heights in the wall, also villages scattered under the cliff, and a labyrinth of caves right in the cliff. The architecture of the villages and the religiously motivated urban arrangement of mud houses centered on the hogon priestly building is unique in the context of the whole of Africa. The Dogon language forms an independent branch of the Niger-Congo language family and is not closely related to any other language.” ref

“Legend says that a long time ago in China there were immortal twins, one who brought harmony and the other, union. So artists made figurines showing the twin brothers, called ”He-He. ” They often were pictured and given to brides, because it was thought they brought a happy marriage.” ref

He-He Er Xian, translated as the Immortals of Harmony and Union and as the Two gods of Harmony and Union, are two Taoist immortals. They are popularly associated with happy marriages. He and He are typically depicted as boys holding a lotus flower () and a box (). There are a number of legendary tales behind two celestial beings of He and Ho, among them there is one regarding the two monks living a secluded life in Tiantai Mountain in the Tang dynasty by the name of Hanshan and Shide and no one know about their subsequent whereabouts. The story is based on Poems of Hanshan and Shide composed by Lv Qiuyin. They were officially canonized as the God of Harmony and the God of Good Union in the first year of Yongzheng rule in the Qing dynasty. They are widely regarded as gods who bless love between husband and wife.” ref

“The Divine Twins are youthful horsemen, either gods or demigods, who serve as rescuers and healers in Proto-Indo-European mythology. Like other Proto-Indo-European divinities, the Divine Twins are not directly attested by archaeological or written materials, but scholars of comparative mythology and Indo-European studies generally agree on the motifs they have reconstructed by way of the comparative method.” ref

Common traits

“Scholar Donald Ward proposed a set of common traits that pertain to divine twin pairs of Indo-European mythologies:

  • dual paternity;
  • mention of a female figure (their mother or their sister);
  • deities of fertility;
  • known by a single dual name or having rhymed/alliterative names;
  • associated with horses;
  • saviours at sea;
  • of astral nature;
  • protectors of oaths;
  • providers of divine aid in battle; and
  • magic healers.” ref

“Although the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) name of the Divine Twins cannot be reconstructed with certainty based on the available linguistic evidence, the most frequent epithets associated with the two brothers in liturgic and poetic traditions are the “Youthful” and the “Descendants” (sons or grandsons) of the Sky-God (Dyēus). Two well-accepted reflexes of the Divine Twins, the Vedic Aśvins and the Lithuanian Ašvieniai, are linguistic cognates ultimately deriving from the Proto-Indo-European word for the horse*h1éḱwos. They are related to Sanskrit áśva and Avestan aspā (both from Indo-Iranian *Haćwa), and to Old Lithuanian ašva, which all share the meaning of “mare“. This may point to an original PIE divine name *h1éḱw-n-, although this form could also have emerged from later contacts between Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-Balto-Slavic speakers, which are known to have occurred in prehistoric times.” ref

“Represented as young men rescuing mortals from peril in battle or at sea, the Divine Twins rode the steeds that pull the sun across the sky and were sometimes depicted as horses themselves. They shared a sister, the Dawn (*H2éwsōs), who is also portrayed as the daughter of the Sky-God (*Dyēus) in Indo-European myths. The two brothers are generally depicted as healers and helpers, travelling in miraculous vehicles to save shipwrecked mortals. They are often differentiated: one is represented as a physically strong and aggressive warrior, while the other is seen as a healer who rather gives attention to domestic duties, agrarian pursuits, or romantic adventures.” ref

“In the Vedic, Greek and Baltic traditions, the Divine Twins similarly appear as the personifications of the morning and evening star. They are depicted as the lovers or the companions of a solar female deity, preferably the Sun’s daughter but sometimes also the Dawn. In the majority of the stories where they appear, the Divine Twins rescue the Dawn from a watery peril, a theme that emerged from their role as the solar steeds. During the night, the Divine Twins were said to return to the east in a golden boat, where they traversed a sea to bring back the rising sun each morning. During the day, they crossed the nocturnal sky in pursuit of their consort, the morning star. In what seems to be a later addition confined to Europe, they were said to take a rest at the end of the day on the “Isles of the Blessed”, a land seating in the western sea which possessed magical apple orchards. By the Bronze Age, the Divine Twins were also represented as the coachmen of horse-driven solar chariots.” ref

“The Gaulish Divanno [de] and Dinomogetimarus are said to be protective deities and “the Gallic equivalents” of the Greek Dioskouroi. They seem to be represented in monuments and reliefs in France flanked by horses, which would make them comparable to Gaulish Martes and the Germanic Alcis. Scholars suggest that the numerous Gallo-Roman dedicatory epigraphs to Castor and Pollux, more than any other region of the Roman Empire, attest a cult of the Dioskoroi. Greek historian Timaeus mentions that Atlantic Celts venerated the “Dioskouroi” above all other gods and that they [Dioskouroi] had visited them from across the Ocean. Historian Diodorus Siculus, in the fourth book of Bibliotheca historica, writes that the Celts who dwelt along the ocean worshipped the Dioscuroi “more than the other gods”. The conjecture that it refers to the Gallic gods Divanno and Dinomogetimarus has no firm support.” ref

“In one of the Irish myths involving Macha (the Dindsenchas of Ard Macha), she is forced to race against the horses of King of Ulster while in late pregnancy. As a talented rider, she wins the race but starts giving birth to Fír and Fial immediately after crossing the finish line. The archetype is also partly matched by figures such as the Gallic sun god Belenus, whose epithet Atepomarus meant “having good horses”; Grannus, who is associated with the healing goddess Sirona (her name means “star”); Maponos (“Son of God”), considered in Irish mythology as the son of Dagda, associated with healing, The Welsh Brân and Manawydan may also be reflexes of the Divine Twins.” ref

“Comparative mythologist Alexander Haggerty Krappe suggested that two heroes, Feradach and Foltlebar, brothers and sons of the king of Innia, are expressions of the mytheme. These heroes help the expedition of the Fianna into Tir fa Thuinn (a realm on the other side of the sea), in a Orphean mission to rescue some of their members, in the tale The pursuit of the Gilla Decair and his horse. Both are expert navigators: one can build a ship and the other can follow the wild birds. Other possible candidates are members of Lugh‘s retinue, Atepomarus and Momorus (fr). Atepomarus is presumed to mean “Great Horseman” or “having great horses”, based on the possible presence of Celtic stem -epo- ‘horse’ in his name. Both appear as a pair of Celtic kings and founders of Lugdunum. They escape from Sereroneus and arrive at a hill. Momorus, who had skills in augury, sees a murder of crows and names the hill Lougodunum, after the crows. This myth is reported in the works of Klitophon of Rhodes and in Pseudo-Plutarch‘s De fluviis.” ref

“The Polish deities Lel and Polel, first mentioned by Maciej Miechowita in 1519, are presented as the equivalents of Castor and Pollux, the sons of the goddess Łada (counterpart of the Greek Leda) and an unknown male god. An idol was found in 1969 on the Fischerinsel island, where the cult centres of the Slavic tribe of Veleti was located, depicting two male figures joined with their heads. Scholars believe it may represent Lel and Polel. Lelek means “strong youth” in Russian dialect. The brightest stars of the Gemini constellation, α Gem and β Gem, are thought to have been originally named Lele and Polele in Belarusian tradition, after the twin characters. According to Polish professor of medieval history, Jacek Banaszkiewicz, the two Polabian gods, Porevit and Porenut, manifest dioscuric characteristics. According to him, the first part of their names derives from a Proto-Slavic root -por meaning “strength,” with first being “Lord of strength” – the stronger one, and the other “Lord in need of support (strength)” – the weaker one. They both have five faces each and appear alongside Rugiaevit, the chief god.” ref

“During childbirth, the mother of the Polish hero twins Waligóra (“Mountain Beater”) and Wyrwidąb (“Oak Tearer”) died in the forest, where wild animals took care of them. Waligóra was raised of by a she-wolf and Wyrwidąb by a she-bear, who fed them with their own milk. Together, they defeated the dragon who tormented the kingdom, for which the grateful king gave each of them half of the kingdom and one of his two daughters as a wife. The sons of KrakKrak II and Lech II also appear in Polish legends as the killers of the Wawel dragonAmphion and Zethus, another pair of twins fathered by Zeus and Antiope, are portrayed as the legendary founders of Thebes. They are called “Dioskouroi, riders of white horses” (λευκόπωλοι) by Euripides in his play The Phoenician Women (the same epithet is used in Heracles and in the lost play Antiope). In keeping with the theme of distinction between the twins, Amphion was said to be the more contemplative, sensitive one, whereas Zethus was more masculine and tied to physical pursuits, like hunting and cattle-breeding.” ref

“The mother of Romulus and Remus, Rhea Silvia, placed them in a basket before her death, which she put in the river to protect them from murder, before they were found by the she-wolf who raised them. The Palici, a pair of Sicilian twin deities fathered by Zeus in one account, may also be a reflex of the original mytheme. Greek rhetorician and grammar Athenaeus of Naucratis, in his work Deipnosophistae, Book II, cited that poet Ibycus, in his Melodies, described twins Eurytus and Cteatus as “λευκίππους κόρους” (“white-horsed youths”) and said they were born from a silver egg, a story that recalls the myth of Greek divine twins Castor and Pollux and their mother Leda. This pair of twins was said to have been fathered by sea god Poseidon and a human mother, Molione.” ref

“Another possible reflex may be found in Nakula and Sahadeva. Mothered by Princess Madri, who summoned the Aśvins themselves in a prayer to beget her sons (thus them being called Ashvineya (आश्विनेय)), the twins are two of the five Pandava brothers, married to the same woman, Draupadi. In the Mahabharata epic, Nakula is described in terms of his exceptional beauty, warriorship and martial prowess, while Sahadeva is depicted as patient, wise, intelligent and a “learned man”. Nakula takes great interest in Virata’s horses, and his brother Sahadeva become Virata’s cowherd. Scholarship also points out that the Vedic Ashvins had an Avestic counterpart called Aspinas. The pair of heroic brothers and main characters of the Albanian legendary epic cycle Kângë Kreshnikësh – Muji and Halili – are considered to bear common traits of the Indo-European divine twins.” ref

“The Armenian heroes Sanasar and Baldasar appear as twins in the epic tradition, born of princess Tsovinar (as depicted in Daredevils of Sassoun); Sanasar finds a “fiery horse”, is more warlike than his brother, and becomes the progenitor of a dynasty of heroes. In an alternate account, their mother is named princess Saṙan, who drinks water from a horse’s footprint and gives birth to both heroes. Scholar Armen Petrosyan also sees possible reflexes of the divine twins in other pairs of heroic brothers in Armenian epic tradition, e.g., Ar(a)maneak and Ar(a)mayis; Eruand (Yervant) and Eruaz (Yervaz). In the same vein, Sargis Haroutyunian argues that the Armenian heroes, as well as twins Izzadin (or Izaddin) and Zyaddin (mentioned in the Kurdish Sharafnama), underlie the myth of divine twins: pairs of brother-founders of divine origin.” ref

“The mytheme of the Divine Twins was widely popular in the Indo-European traditions; evidence for their worship can be found from Scandinavia to the Near East as early as the Bronze Age. The motif was also adopted in non-Indo-European cultures, as attested by the Etruscan Tinas Clenar, the “sons of Jupiter”. There might also have been a worship of twin deities in Myceanean times, based on the presence of myths and stories about pairs of brothers or male twins in Attica and Boeotia. The most prevalent functions associated with the twins in later myths are magic healers and physicians, sailors and saviours at sea, warriors and providers of divine aid in battle, controllers of weather and keepers of the wind, assistants at birth with a connection to fertility, divinities of dance, protectors of the oath, and founders of cities, sometimes related to swans. Scholarship suggests that the mytheme of twins has echoes in the medieval legend of Amicus and Amelius. In Belarusian folklore, Saints George and Nicholas are paired up together, associated with horses, and have a dual nature as healers. The veneration of the Slavic saint brothers Boris and Gleb may also be related.” ref

Lugal-irra (𒀭𒈗𒄊𒊏) and Meslamta-ea (𒀭𒈩𒇴𒋫𒌓𒁺𒀀) were a pair of Mesopotamian gods who typically appear together in cuneiform texts and were described as the “divine twins” (Maštabba). There were regarded as warrior gods and as protectors of doors, possibly due to their role as the gatekeepers of the underworld. In Mesopotamian astronomy they came to be associated with a pair of stars known as the “Great Twins”, Alpha Geminorum and Beta Geminorum. They were both closely associated with Nergal, and could be either regarded as members of his court or equated with him. Their cult centers were Kisiga and Dūrum. While no major sanctuaries dedicated to them are attested elsewhere, they were nonetheless worshiped in multiple other cities. Lugal-irra’s name was most commonly written in cuneiform as dLugalGÌR-ra. It can be romanized as Lugalirra as well. It has Sumerian origin and can be translated as “the strong lord”. The variant Lugal-girra, dLugal-gír-ra, reflects a late reinterpretation of the name as “lord of the dagger” and is no longer considered an indication that dLugal-GÌR-ra was ever read as Lugal-girra. Despite the phonetic similarity, the second half of Lugal-irra’s name is most likely unrelated to the theonym Erra (variant: Irra), and its Akkadian translation was gašru according to lexical lists.” ref

“Twin deities manifested integrating or opposite natural elements in ancient Egypt. Two identical falcons represented Horus and Seth. Isis and Nephtys were also a divine twin of the same gender. Shu and Tefnut were an example for unlike-sexed divine twins. The souls of Osiris and Re were the twin children of Horus. This research studies the Egyptian divine twins beside the Greek twin deities which appeared in Egypt on a limited scale. Some of them had an Egyptian origin such as; the sign of Gemini which was inspired from Shu and Tefnut. Apollo and Artemis were also venerated in Egypt.” ref

Twins in mythology are in many cultures around the world. In some cultures they are seen as ominous, and in others they are seen as auspicious. Twins in mythology are often cast as two halves of the same whole, sharing a bond deeper than that of ordinary siblings, or seen as fierce rivals. They can be seen as representations of a dualistic worldview. They can represent another aspect of the self, a doppelgänger, or a shadow.” ref

“Twins are often depicted with special powers. This applies to both mortal and immortal sets of twins, and often is related to power over the weather. Twins in mythology also often share deep bonds. In Greek mythology, Castor and Pollux share a bond so strong that when mortal Castor dies, Pollux gives up half of his immortality to be with his brother. Castor and Pollux are the Dioscuri twin brothers. Their mother is Leda, a being who was seduced by Zeus who had taken the form of a swan. Even though the brothers are twins, they have two different fathers. This phenomenon is a very common interpretation of twin births across different mythological cultures. Castor’s father is Tyndareus, the king of Sparta (hence the mortal form). Pollux is the son of Zeus (demigod).” ref

“This brothers were said to be born from an egg along with either sister Helen and Clytemnestra. This etymologically explains why their constellation, the Dioskouroi or Gemini, is only seen during one half of the year, as the twins split their time between the underworld and Mount Olympus. In an aboriginal tale, the same constellation represents the twin lizards who created the plants and animals and saved women from evil spirits. Another example of this strong bond shared between twins is the Ibeji twins from African mythology. Ibeji twins are viewed as one soul shared between two bodies. If one of the twins dies, the parents then create a doll that portrays the body of the deceased child, so the soul of the deceased can remain intact for the living twin.” ref

“Without the creation of the doll, the living twin is almost destined for death because it is believed to be missing half of its soul. Twins in mythology are often associated with healing. They are also often gifted with the ability of divination or insight into the future. Divine twins in twin mythology are identical to either one or both place of a god. The Feri gods are not separated entities but are unified into one center. These divine twins can function alone in one body, either functioning as a male or as male and female as they desire. Divine twins represent a polarity in the world. This polarity may be great or small and at times can be opposition. Twins are often seen to be rivals or adversaries.” ref

“The Diné believe they are sustained as a nation because of their enduring faith in the Great Spirit. Because of their strong spirituality, the Navajo people believe they will continue to survive as an Indian nation forever.” ref

4. Southern Athabascan/Dené–YeniseianNa-Dené, Athabaskan–Eyak, AthabaskaSouthern Athabascan. Eyak is not an Athabaskan language, but a coordinate sub-branch to Athabaskan as a whole in the Athabaskan-Eyak branch of the Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit language family.” refref 

Tsohanoai

“The Navaho sun god. He is conceived of as a man who carries the sun on his back. At night Tsohanoai, ‘sun bearer’, is said to hang the sun on a peg on the west wall of his house.” ref

“Tsohanoai – “Sun Bearer,” is the sun-spirit of the Navajo. In some myths, he is depicted as a man carrying the sun on his back. The sun as his shining shield. At nightfall, his journey completed, he joins his wife, the season goddess Estsanatlehi, in her square house in the west.” ref

“Tsohanoai, the Navajo Sun Bearer, is more than just a deity; he’s a cosmic force that shapes the very fabric of Navajo life. As the sun’s carrier, he ensures the daily cycle of light and dark, a rhythm that’s essential to the Navajo understanding of the world. His role isn’t merely symbolic; it’s a practical necessity, providing the warmth and energy needed for life to thrive. Beyond his celestial duties, Tsohanoai represents the interconnectedness of all things. He’s a symbol of life’s cycles, from the growth of crops to the passage of time. The Navajo people honor him through rituals, songs, and prayers, recognizing his vital role in their culture and spirituality.” ref

“Tsohanoai, the Navajo Sun Bearer, is a figure of both celestial beauty and cosmic power. He’s often depicted as a radiant blue disk, symbolizing the sun he carries across the sky. Sometimes, the disk has eyes and a mouth, hinting at his divine nature and the life-giving energy he brings. In other representations, he’s shown as a strong, human-like figure, emphasizing his enduring role in Navajo mythology. Whether he’s a disk or a man, Tsohanoai’s appearance reflects his connection to the sun. He’s often described as glowing with warmth and light, mirroring the sun’s power. His journey across the sky is a daily ritual, a cosmic dance that brings balance to the world. Adorned with colors and symbols of the sun, Tsohanoai is a figure of awe and reverence. He’s more than just a deity; he’s a living embodiment of the sun’s life-giving energy, a constant reminder of the cyclical nature of existence.” ref

Family

“Tsohanoai, the Navajo Sun Bearer, isn’t alone in his cosmic journey. He’s part of a powerful family that shapes the very fabric of Navajo mythology. His parents, the Earth Mother and Father Sky, represent the unity of the earth and sky, a fundamental belief in Navajo culture. Tsohanoai’s family isn’t just about ancestry; it’s about relationships and roles. His wife, Changing Woman, is a goddess of transformation, and together, they have two sons, the Hero Twins. These twins embark on epic quests, often seeking their father’s help to battle evil forces.” ref

Other names

“Tsohanoai, the Sun Bearer, is known by many names, each reflecting a different facet of his power. He’s been called “Tsohano,” emphasizing his dominion over the sun. He’s also been referred to as simply the “Sun God,” connecting him to other sun deities in indigenous cultures. These different names highlight his versatility and adaptability within Navajo culture. They show how his story has evolved and resonated with different tribes and communities, enriching the mythology surrounding him. Whether he’s the Sun Bearer, Tsohano, or simply the Sun God, Tsohanoai’s role in Navajo mythology remains the same: he’s the celestial force that carries the sun across the sky, bringing light and life to the world.” ref

Powers and Abilities

“Tsohanoai, the Sun Bearer, is more than just a celestial figure; he’s a cosmic force that shapes the world. As the embodiment of the sun, he brings light, warmth, and life to the earth. But his powers extend beyond the physical; he’s also a spiritual guide, offering wisdom and insight to those who seek him. The Navajo people revere Tsohanoai for his control over nature. He influences weather patterns, seasons, and the growth of crops, essential for their agricultural way of life. His movements in the sky are seen as signs of the changing seasons, guiding their planting and harvesting.” ref

“Tsohanoai’s primary power is his ability to carry the sun across the sky, ensuring the daily cycle of light and dark. This isn’t just a task; it’s a cosmic duty that brings life and sustenance to the world. Beyond the sun, he’s also believed to control weather patterns, a power invoked in prayers for favorable conditions. Tsohanoai’s influence extends beyond the sun’s path. He’s a protector, sharing his powers with his sons, the Hero Twins, to help them fight evil. Through his family and his cosmic role, Tsohanoai is a figure of immense power and influence in Navajo mythology.” ref

“Native Americans have several versions of a sun god. Two of those are the Creek god Hisakitaimisi and Tsohanoai of Navajo tradition. Native American deities, or gods, serve many purposes in the Native American culture. They help to explain the creation of our world, the existence, habits, and personalities of the animals, and the energy and spirit of the land, water, and all of nature, among other things. There are numerous Native American tribes spread throughout the United States, and these peoples all have different cultures, and beliefs, and while each has their own deities and storytelling histories, there are also many similarities, as well.” ref

“One such commonality is the belief in a Great Spirit, or Creator deity, who is responsible for the creation of the Earth and all of her aspects and inhabitants. Another common deity is the trickster, a mischievous spirit often considered to be a nuisance because its tricks transform the state of the world, creating chaos and uncertainty. All of the Native American deities serve the purpose of explaining our world, how it came to be, how it became the world we know today, and our role in this life.” ref

“Native American god names are abundant, and there are many Native American gods and goddesses, but their stories tend to serve the same four primary purposes across the different tribes:

  • Native American deities help to explain the world around us. They tell of how this world was created.
  • Deities also explain the nature of the world. They are the energy in the clouds, the water, the forests, and the animals. They are the power behind terrific rainstorms, blinding blizzards, hurricanes, angry, swirling tornados.
  • Myths and stories of deities helped elders pass along the tribes’ beliefs and tradition through storytelling.
  • These deities and storytelling helped to show people how to live in harmony with the world.
  • The Great Spiritis a very important Native American deity. The Great Spirit is responsible for the existence of the universe. The Great Spirit is part of the animals, part of the land, and part of the water. It is in all the natural world. Some say that the Great Spirit is akin to the Christian concept of God, but many Native Americans disagree with this assessment.
  • Native Americans in general believe that the Great Spirit brought the universe into existence and then assigned Creator gods to do the detailed work of finishing creation and supervising the running of the world. The Great Spirit is known by many names, including Chebbeniathan (Arapaho), Maheu (Cheyenne), Manitou (Iroquois), and Wakantanka (Sioux).
  • The Lakota creation story is one of the most interesting ones. It is similar to the Biblical story of the great flood that God used to re-create humankind. In the Lakota story, the Great Spirit was displeased with people and began to sing to bring forth the rains. By the fourth song, the water overwhelmed the Earth, causing it to crack and water to rush up and flood the Earth. By the time the flood was over, only the crow survived. The crow pleaded with the Great Spirit to make him a new place to rest, and so the Great Spirit decided to recreate the world.
  • The Great Spirit sent four animals- a loon, an otter, a beaver, and finally, a turtle- to bring back mud from beneath the waters. Only the turtle was successful. The Great Spirit used that mud to create land for the crow. He named the new land “Turtle Continent” in honor of the turtle who brought forth the mud.” ref

 List of Native American deities

Here are some that are sky-related:

Pamola – Bird spirit; causes cold weather – Abenaki

TaiowaSun spirit, creator – Hopi

Matshishkapeu – Spirit of the anus “farting/bad-wind as a weapon” – Innu

Igaluk – Lunar deity – Inuit

Torngasoak – Sky god – Inuit

Gaoh – Wind god – Iroquois

Gendenwitha – Maiden, transformed into Morning Star by Dawn – Iroquois

Hahgwehdiyu – Creator; god of goodness and light. Twin of Hahgwehdaetgan – Iroquois

Skellsky god – Klamath

Kewkwaxa’we – Raven spirit – Kwakiutl

Wi – Solar spirit, father of Whope (spirit of peace) – Lakota

Niskam – The sun; architect – Mi’kmaq

Niltsi – Wind god – Navajo

Niłchʼi Diyin (Navajo pronunciation: [nɪ̀ɬtʃʼɪ̀ tɪ̀jɪ̀n], ‘Holy Wind’) – Navajo

Tó Neinilii – ‘Water sprinkler,’ rain god – Navajo

Jóhonaaʼéí – Sun – Navajo

Yoołgai Asdzą́ą́ – ‘White-shell woman,’ lunar deity – Navajo 

Black God – Creator of the stars, god of fire – Navajo  

Pah – Lunar deity – Pawnee 

Shakuru – Solar deity – Pawnee 

Tirawa/Atíʼas Tirawa – “Our Father Above” (often translated, “Great Spirit”) was the creator god – Pawnee

Amotken – supreme deity, an elderly man who lives alone in heavenSalish

Eagentci – Sky goddess – Seneca

Kaakvha – Solar deity – Seneca

AnpaoSpirit with two faces that represents the dawn – Sioux

Dohkwibuhch – Creator god in the sky world – Snohomish

Yaya (Hayah)Supreme God/Great Spirit – Taíno

GuabancexTop Storm Goddess; the Lady of the Winds – Taíno

Juracán – The zemi or deity of chaos and weather, particularly hurricanes – Taíno

Guatauva – god of thunder and lightning, also responsible for rallying the other storm gods – Taíno

Coatrisquie – torrential downpour Goddess, servant of Guabancex and side-kick of thunder God Guatauva – Taíno

Boinayel – God of the sun and of good weather; Marohu’s twin brother – Taíno

MárohuGod of the moon and of rain, rainstorms, and floods; Boinayel’s twin brother – Taíno

Chinigchinix/Quaoarcreator deity “Chingichngish avengers” Raven, Rattlesnake, Bear, & others – Tongva

HengStorm godWyandot 

IoshekaCreator god, his twin brother Tawiscara as they fought for world controlWyandot 

“Native Americans are traditionally very spiritual people, and most tribes revere “The Great Spirit.” This is an English translation of The Creator, a deity or “God”. Native American culture, to this day, honors and is mindful of The Great Spirit, and Native American blankets like the Pendleton Rio Canyon blanket (pictured) pay homage to the presence of The Great Spirit in all living things.” ref

What is The Great Spirit?

“While some Native Americans have come to consider The Great Spirit and the Abrahamic God to be one and the same (and even a result of European colonialization), for others, there has always been a belief in a Great Mystery and force in and amongst everything in the Universe. The concept of a universal spiritual force represents a god of creation and eternity. It speaks through chosen individuals or mediators and provides guidance to humans.” ref

“Many tribes have different names for The Great Spirit, for example:

  • Wakan Tanka – Sioux Great Spirit
  • Manitou – Iroquois Great Spirit
  • Apistotoke – Blackfoot Great Spirit
  • Maheo – Cheyenne Great Spirit
  • Tirawa Atius – Pawnee Great Spirit” ref

“The Great Spirit is perceived as both male and female, separate but one divine deity, though some tribes refer to it as “Father,” “Grandfather,” or “Old Man.” The Mother Earth aspect of The Great Spirit harks back to Neolithic Goddess culture. Women shared equality with men and the Divine Feminine was the source of animal, vegetation, and human life. In the post-Goddess era, the masculine hierarchy thrived, yet among Native American tribal culture, the masculine and feminine are far more generally balanced than for most Western religions and cultural traditions. Women in Native American culture enjoy an influence and respect exceeding that of almost any other culture worldwide.” ref

  • “The Great Spirit is seen by the Lakota Sioux, for example, as an amalgamation of Father Sky (the dominant force), Mother Earth, and an array of Spirits who oversee human life and the elements.
  • The Shoshone call their creator god “Tam Apo” which translates as “Our Father”.
  • Some tribes represent the Supreme Being as an animal, most often a wolf, having human thought and speech.” ref

Other Native Religious Concepts

“American Indian religions feature certain other distinct beliefs and traditions:

  • Mythological anthropomorphic animals imbued with spirits.
  • Spirits inhabit everything from the stars to rivers, mountains, rocks, fire, air, animals, insects, lakes, and the earth itself.
  • Belief in reincarnation into human or animal form.
  • Ghosts walking the Earth among the living.
  • A heavenly afterlife. Those tribes which are based on nomadic hunting culture (e.g., the Plains Indians) tend to favor a belief in a “Happy Hunting Ground”, or an afterlife in a place with a bounty of game. Those which are based on agriculture (agrarian tribes – e.g., the Hopi) tend to believe the afterlife is in a land beneath or inside the Earth, and it is from here that Mother Earth renews life.” ref

“Navajo culture, the Great Spirit is known as Naayéé (Ya-hey) and is believed to offer guidance and protection to those who seek it.” ref

Weather Deity

A weather god or goddess, also frequently known as a storm god or goddess, is a deity in mythology associated with weather phenomena such as thunder, snow, lightning, rain, wind, storms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. Should they only be in charge of one feature of a storm, they will be called after that attribute, such as a rain god or a lightning/thunder god. This singular attribute might then be emphasized more than the generic, all-encompassing term “storm god”, though with thunder/lightning gods, the two terms seem interchangeable. They feature commonly in polytheistic religions, especially in Proto-Indo-European ones. Storm gods are most often conceived of as wielding thunder and/or lightning (some lightning gods’ names actually mean “thunder,” but since one cannot have thunder without lightning, they presumably wielded both). The ancients didn’t seem to differentiate between the two, which is presumably why both the words “lightning bolt” and “thunderbolt” exist despite being synonyms. Of the examples currently listed storm themed deities are more frequently depicted as male, but both male and female storm or other rain, wind, or weather deities are described.” ref

“Central America, South America, and the Caribbean

  • Apocatequil, Pre-Incan god of lightning, the day and good. Regional variant of god Illapa.
  • Chaac, Maya rain god. Aztec equivalent is Tlaloc.
  • Coatrisquie, Taíno rain goddess, servant of Guabancex, and sidekick of thunder god Guatauva.
  • Cocijo, Zapotec god of lightning.
  • Ehecatl, Aztec god of wind.
  • Guabancex, top Taíno storm goddess; the Lady of the Winds who also dishes out earthquakes and other natural disasters.
  • Guatauva, Taíno god of thunder and lightning who is also responsible for rallying the other storm gods.
  • Huari, Pre-Incan god of water, rain, lightning, agriculture, and war. After a period of time, he was identified as a giant god of war, sun, water, and agriculture.
  • Huracán, K’iche Maya god of the weather, wind, storms, and fire.
  • Illapa, Inca god of lightning, thunder, rain, and war. He is considered one of the most important and powerful Inca gods.
  • Juracán, Taíno zemi or deity of chaos and disorder believed to control the weather, particularly hurricanes.
  • K’awiil, classic Maya god of lightning.
  • Kon, Inca god of wind and rain. Kon is also a creator god.
  • Pachakamaq, Inca god of earthquakes, fire, the clouds, and sky. Commonly described as a reissue of Wiracocha. He was one of the most important Inca gods, as well as he is considered the creator god of the universe and controller of the balance of the world.
  • Paryaqaqa, Pre-Incan god of water, torrential rains, storms, and lightning. Regional variant of the god Illapa.
  • Q’uq’umatz, K’iche Maya god of wind and rain, also known as Kukulkan, Aztec equivalent is Quetzalcoatl.
  • Tezcatlipoca, Aztec god of hurricanes and night winds.
  • Tlaloc, Aztec rain and earthquake god. Mayan equivalent is Chaac.
  • Tohil, K’iche Maya god of rain, sun, and fire.
  • Tupã, the Guaraní god of thunder and light. Creator of the universe.
  • Wiracocha, the Inca and Pre-Incan god of everything. Absolute creator of the entire Cosmos, as well as everything in existence. Considered the father of all the Inca gods and supreme god of the Inca pantheon. Wiracocha was associated with the sun, lightning, and storms.
  • Yana Raman, Pre-Incan god of lightning. Considered creator by the Yaros or Llacuaces ethnic group. Regional variant of the god Illapa.
  • Yopaat, a Classic-period Maya storm god.” ref

wind god is a god who controls the wind(s). Air deities may also be considered here as wind is nothing more than moving air. Many polytheistic religions have one or more wind gods. They may also have a separate air god or a wind god may double as an air god. Many wind gods are also linked with one of the four seasons.” ref

Native American Wind/Air Deities

North America 

Anishinaabe

  • Epigishmog, god of the west wind and spiritual being of ultimate destiny.

Cherokee

Iroquois

  • Da-jo-jo, mighty panther spirit of the west wind.
  • Gǎ-oh, spirit of the wind.
  • Ne-o-gah, gentle fawn spirit of the south wind.
  • O-yan-do-ne, moose spirit of the east wind.
  • Ya-o-gah, destructive bear spirit of the north wind who is stopped by Gǎ-oh.

Inuit

  • Silap Inua, the weather god who represents the breath of life and lures children to be lost in the tundra.

Lakota

  • Okaga, fertility goddess of the south winds.
  • Taku Skanskan, capricious master of the four winds.
  • Tate, a wind god or spirit in Lakota mythology.
  • Waziya, giant of the north winds who brings icy weather, famine, and diseases.
  • Wiyohipeyata, god of the west winds who oversees endings and events of the night.
  • Wiyohiyanpa, god of the east winds who oversees beginnings and events of the day.
  • Yum, the whirlwind son of Anog Ite.
  • Niltsi, ally of the Heroic Twins and one of the guardians of the sun gods.

Pawnee

  • Hotoru, the giver of breath invoked in religious ceremonies.

Central American and the Caribbean

Aztec

Mayan

Taino

  • Guabancex, goddess of the wind and hurricanes.

South America

Quechua

Brazil

  • Iansã / Oyá, goddess of the winds.ref

Polytheistic peoples from many cultures have postulated a thunder god, the personification or source of the forces of thunder and lightning; a lightning god does not have a typical depiction, and will vary based on the culture. In Indo-European cultures, the thunder god is frequently known as the chief or King of the Gods, e.g. Indra in HinduismZeus in Greek mythologyZojz in Albanian mythology, and Perun in ancient Slavic religion.” ref

Thunder Deities of the Americas

“There are many different gods of rain in different religions, including those found in the Americas: 

North America

South America

 “Naayééʼ Neizghání (Navajo pronunciation: [nɑ̀ːjéːʔ nèɪ̀zɣɑ́nɪ́]) is a mythical hero from Navajo mythology who, along with his brother Tóbájízhchíní, rid the world of the Naayééʼ.” ref

Meeting the Sun God

“At one point, the brothers decided to visit their father, Jóhonaaʼéí, the sun. The trials they have to go through are different depending on the version of the story, but most involve figuring out clever ways to climb up into the sky and get past the guards of the sun’s house. Once they have proved themselves to their father, he gifts them weapons to help them kill the rest of the Naayééʼ, chief among them being a quiver full of lightning bolts.” ref

Sun Symbolism

“In Diné (Navajo) belief, the sun itself is a large circle of stone created by the Diyin Dine’é (Holy People) to provide light for this world. They fastened the sun disc to the sky in the east, but soon realized the stationary position of the sun was scorching the eastern landscape and leaving the west in winter. Jóhonaaʼéí (Sun Carrier) agreed to leave his earthly existence to become an immortal being and carry the sun across the sky each day. Sun Carrier is a figure of power, clarity, high standards, and extreme discipline in Diné culture. He applied his high standards and discipline to his own children, the Hero Twins. Before he would provide the twins with weapons to battle the Naayéé’ (Alien Monsters), Sun Carrier required them to undergo four life-threatening tests to prove their worthiness. And it is only with Sun Carrier’s power striking the first blow that the twins are able to defeat ʼiitsoh (Big Monster).” ref

“Turquoise Boy, who was a Nádleehi, neither male nor female, who guarded the great male reed. In this way, Turquoise Boy became the sun, Jóhonaaʼéí, The One Who Rules the Day. Fire God, the Black Yéʼii, used his fire to heat the turquoise on the buckskin until it became red hot. Then they asked Turquoise Boy to enter the glowing turquoise. “If I do that, I must be paid with the lives of the people of the earth, all the human beings, the animals which have four legs, the birds and insects of the air, the fishes, and all the people under the water.” ref 

Jóhonaaʼéí -Tales From America’s South West

“The enchanting world of Jóhonaaʼéí, a captivating collection of First Nations folk tales and legends from the California Basin and Southwestern nations.” ref 

“The Anaye (or Nayéé’, Navajo pronunciation: [nɑ̀jéːʔ]) were a race of monsters or evil gods from Navajo mythology, who were all killed by the hero Nayenezgani. According to the legend, Anaye came about when men and women separated after a dispute, resulting in the women having sexual intercourse with random objects that they found. This resulted in them giving birth to monsters resembling what their “father” was. For example, Yeitso’s was birthed from a stone.” ref 

“The Navajo people, the Diné, passed through three different worlds before emerging into this world, The Fourth World, or Glittering World. The Diné believe there are two classes of beings: the Earth People and the Holy People. The Holy People are believed to have the power to aid or harm the Earth People. Since Earth People of the Diné are an integral part of the universe, they must do everything they can to maintain harmony or balance on Mother Earth.” ref  

“It is believed that centuries ago, the Holy People taught the Diné how to live the right way and to conduct their many acts of everyday life. They were taught to live in harmony with Mother Earth, Father Sky, and the many other elements such as man, animals, plants, and insects. The Holy People put four sacred mountains in four different directions, Mt. Blanca to the east, Mt. Taylor to the south, San Francisco Peak to the west, and Mt Hesperus to the north near Durango, Colorado, thus creating Navajoland. The four directions are represented by four colors: White Shell represents the east, Turquoise the south, Yellow Abalone the west, and Jet Black the north.” ref

“The number four permeates traditional Navajo philosophy. In the Navajo culture there are four directions, four seasons, the first four clans and four colors that are associated with the four sacred mountains. In most Navajo rituals there are four songs and multiples thereof, as well as Navajo wedding basket and many other symbolic uses of four. When a disorder evolves in a Navajo’s life, such as an illness, medicine men/people use herbs, prayers, songs, and ceremonies to help cure patients. Some tribal members choose to be cured at the many hospitals on the Navajo Nation.” ref

“Some will seek the assistance of a traditional Navajo medicine man/people. A qualified medicine-man is a unique individual bestowed with supernatural powers to diagnose a person’s problem and to heal or cure an illness, and restore harmony to the patient. There are more than 50 different kinds of ceremonies that may be used in the Navajo culture – all performed at various times for a specific reason. Some ceremonies last several hours, while others may last as long as nine days.” ref

Diné Bahaneʼ Creation myth

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

This art above explains my thinking from my life of investigation

I am an anarchist (Social anarchism, Left-wing anarchism, or Socialist anarchism) trying to explain prehistory as I see it after studying it on my own starting 2006. Anarchists are for truth and believe in teaching the plain truth; misinformation is against this, and we would and should fight misinformation and disinformation.

I see anarchism as a social justice issue not limited to some political issue or monetary persuasion. People own themselves, have self/human rights, and deserve freedoms. All humanity is owed respect for its dignity; we are all born equal in dignity and human rights, and no plot of dirt we currently reside on changes this.

I fully enjoy the value (axiology) of archaeology (empirical evidence from fact or artifacts at a site) is knowledge (epistemology) of the past, adding to our anthropology (evidence from cultures both the present and past) intellectual (rational) assumptions of the likely reality of actual events from time past.

I am an Axiological Atheist, Philosopher & Autodidact Pre-Historical Writer/Researcher, Anti-theist, Anti-religionist, Anarcho Humanist, LGBTQI, Race, & Class equality. I am not an academic, I am a revolutionary sharing education and reason to inspire more deep thinking. I do value and appreciate Academics, Archaeologists, Anthropologists, and Historians as they provide us with great knowledge, informing us about our shared humanity.

I am a servant leader, as I serve the people, not myself, not my ego, and not some desire for money, but rather a caring teacher’s heart to help all I can with all I am. From such thoughtfulness may we all see the need for humanism and secularism, respecting all as helpful servant leaders assisting others as often as we can to navigate truth and the beauty of reality.

‘Reality’ ie. real/external world things, facts/evidence such as that confirmed by science, or events taken as a whole documented understanding of what occurred/is likely to have occurred; the accurate state of affairs. “Reason” is not from a mind devoid of “unreason” but rather demonstrates the potential ability to overcome bad thinking. An honest mind, enjoys just correction. Nothing is a justified true belief without valid or reliable reason and evidence; just as everything believed must be open to question, leaving nothing above challenge.

I don’t believe in gods or ghosts, and nor souls either. I don’t believe in heavens or hells, nor any supernatural anything. I don’t believe in Aliens, Bigfoot, nor Atlantis. I strive to follow reason and be a rationalist. Reason is my only master and may we all master reason. Thinking can be random, but reason is organized and sound in its Thinking. Right thinking is reason, right reason is logic, and right logic can be used in math and other scientific methods. I don’t see religious terms Animism, Totemism, Shamanism, or Paganism as primitive but original or core elements that are different parts of world views and their supernatural/non-natural beliefs or thinking.

I am inspired by philosophy, enlightened by archaeology, and grounded by science that religion claims, on the whole, along with their magical gods, are but dogmatic propaganda, myths, and lies. To me, religions can be summed up as conspiracy theories about reality, a reality mind you is only natural and devoid of magic anything. And to me, when people talk as if Atlantis is anything real, I stop taking them seriously. Like asking about the reality of Superman or Batman just because they seem to involve metropolitan cities in their stores. Or if Mother Goose actually lived in a shoe? You got to be kidding.

We are made great in our many acts of kindness, because we rise by helping each other.

NE = Proto-North Eurasian/Ancient North Eurasian/Mal’ta–Buret’ culture/Mal’ta Boy “MA-1” 24,000 years old burial

A = Proto-Afroasiatic/Afroasiatic

Y= Proto-Yeniseian/Yeniseian

S = Samara culture

ST = Proto-Sino-Tibetan/Sino-Tibetan

T = Proto-Transeurasian/Altaic

C = Proto-Northwest Caucasus language/Northwest Caucasian/Languages of the Caucasus

I = Proto-Indo-European/Indo-European

IB = Iberomaurusian Culture/Capsian culture

Natufian culture (15,000–11,500 years ago, SyriaLebanonJordan, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Negev desert)

Proto-Uralic/Uralic languages

Nganasan people/Nganasan language

Na-Dene languages/Dené–YeniseianDené–Caucasian

Tlingit language

Proto-Semitic/Semitic languages

Sumerian language

Proto-Basque/Basque language

24,000 years ago, Proto-North Eurasian Language (Ancient North Eurasian) migrations?

My thoughts:

Proto-North Eurasian Language (Ancient North Eurasian) With related Y-DNA R1a, R1b, R2a, and Q Haplogroups.

R1b 22,0000-15,000 years ago in the Middle east creates Proto-Afroasiatic languages moving into Africa around 15,000-10,000 years ago connecting with the Iberomaurusian Culture/Taforalt near the coasts of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.

R2a 10,000 years ago in Iran brings/creates Proto-Indo-European language and also a possibility is R1a in Russia around 9,000 years ago may have had a version of Proto-Indo-European language.

Around 14,000-10,000 years ago??? Proto-North Eurasian Language goes to the Yellow River basin (eventually relating with the Yangshao culture) in China creates Proto-Sino-Tibetan language.

Proto-Sino-Tibetan language then moves to the West Liao River valley (eventually relating with the Hongshan culture) in China creating Proto-Transeurasian (Altaic) language around 9,000 years ago.

N Haplogroups 9,000 years ago with Proto-Transeurasian language possibly moves north to Lake Baikal. Then after living with Proto-North Eurasian Language 24,000-9,000 years ago?/Pre-Proto-Yeniseian language 9,000-7,000 years ago Q Haplogroups (eventually relating with the Ket language and the Ket people) until around 5,500 years ago, then N Haplogroups move north to the Taymyr Peninsula in North Siberia (Nganasan homeland) brings/creates the Proto-Uralic language.

Q Haplogroups with Proto-Yeniseian language /Proto-Na-Dene language likely emerge 8,000/7,000 years ago or so and migrates to the Middle East (either following R2a to Iraq or R1a to Russia (Samara culture) then south to Iraq creates the Sumerian language. It may have also created the Proto-Caucasian languages along the way. And Q Haplogroups with Proto-Yeniseian language to a migration to North America that relates to Na-Dené (and maybe including Haida) languages, of which the first branch was Proto-Tlingit language 5,000 years ago, in the Pacific Northwest.

Sino-Tibetan language then moves more east in China to the Hemudu culture pre-Austronesian culture, next moved to Taiwan creating the Proto-Austronesian language around 6,000-5,500 years ago.

R1b comes to Russia from the Middle East around 7,500 years ago, bringing a version of Proto-Indo-European languages to the (Samara culture), then Q Y-DNA with Proto-Yeniseian language moves south from the (Samara culture) and may have been the language that created the Proto-Caucasian language. And R1b from the (Samara culture) becomes the 4,200 years or so R1b associated with the Basques and Basque language it was taken with R1b, but language similarities with the Proto-Caucasian language implies language ties to Proto-Yeniseian language.

24,000 Years Old Proto-North Eurasian Language (Ancient North Eurasian) migrations? Became: Proto-Afroasiatic, Proto-Sino-Tibetan, Proto-Transeurasian, Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Yeniseian, Proto-Na-Dene, Proto-Caucasian, Sumerian, Proto-Austronesian, and the Basque language

1. Tlingit language, “spoken by the Tlingit people of Southeast Alaska and Western Canada, and is a branch of the Na-Dene language familyDené–Yeniseian languagessuggesting that the Na-Dene languages (Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit) might be related to the Yeniseian (or Yeniseic) languages of Siberia, the only living representative of which is the Ket languageDene–Yeniseian is a proposed language family consisting of the Yeniseian languages of central Siberia and the Na-Dene languages of northwestern North America.” ref, refref

Tlingit Cultural Values

“We have one great word in our culture: haa shageinyaa. This was a Great Spirit above us, and today we have translated that reverence to God.” ref 

“In Tlingit culture, there are two different raven characters which can be identified, although they are not always clearly differentiated. One is the creator raven, responsible for bringing the world into being and who is sometimes considered to be the individual who brought light to the darkness. The other is the childish raven, always selfish, sly, conniving, and hungry. When the Great Spirit created all things he kept them separate and stored in cedar boxes. The Great Spirit gifted these boxes to the animals who existed before humans. When the animals opened the boxes all the things that comprise the world came into being. The boxes held such things as mountains, fire, water, wind and seeds for all the plants. One such box, which was given to Seagull, contained all the light of the world. Seagull coveted his box and refused to open it, clutching it under his wing. All the people asked Raven to persuade Seagull to open it and release the light. Despite begging, demanding, flattering, and trying to trick him into opening the box, Seagull still refused. Raven became angry and frustrated, and stuck a thorn in Seagull’s foot. Raven pushed the thorn in deeper until the pain caused Seagull to drop the box. Then out of the box came the sun, moon, and stars that brought light to the world and allowed the first day to begin.” ref 

“LONG ago, even before the days of the animal people, the world was only a great ocean wherein was no land nor any living thing except a great Bird. The Bird, after a long, long time, flew down to the surface of the water and dipped his great black wings into the flood. The earth arose out of the waters. So began the creation. While the land was still soft, the first man burst from the pod of the beach pea and looked out upon the endless plain behind him and the gray salt sea before him. He was the only man. Then Raven appeared to him and the creation of other beings began. Raven made also animals for food and clothing. Later, because the earth plain was so bare, he planted trees and shrubs and grass and set the green things to growing.” ref

“With creation by a Great Spirit, there came dangers from evil spirits. Such spirits carried away the sun and moon, and hung them to the rafters of the dome-shaped Alaskan huts. The world became cold and cheerless, and in the Land of Darkness white skins became blackened by contact with the darkness. So it became necessary to search for the sun and hang it again in the dome-shaped sky above them. Darkness in the Land of Long Night was the cause, through magic, of the bitter winds of winter—winds which [vi]came down from the North, bringing with them ice and cold and snow. This was the work of some Great Spirit which had loosened the side of the gray cloud-tent under which they lived, letting in the bitter winds of another world. Spirits blow the mists over the cold north sea so that canoes lose sight of their home-land. Spirits also drive the ice floes, with their fishermen, far over the horizon of ocean, into the still colder North. Spirits govern the run of the salmon, the catching of whales, and all the life of the people of the North who wage such a terrific struggle for existence.” ref

“Many Alaskan myths are very long and tiresome, rambling from one subject to another, [vii]besides revealing low moral conditions. These have been omitted, as have also those which deal with the intermarriage of men and birds, and men and animals. Such myths are better left among government documents where they can be readily consulted by those making a special study of the subject. They are hardly suitable for any collection intended for general reading. The leading myth of the North, however, the Raven Myth, is given with a fair degree of completeness. It would not be possible, nor would it be wise, to attempt a compilation of all the fragments of this extensive myth.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref

“The Mesoamerican language area is a sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica. This sprachbund is defined by an array of syntactic, lexical, and phonological traits as well as a number of ethnolinguistic traits found in the languages of Mesoamerica, which belong to a number of language families, such as Uto-AztecanMayanTotonacanOto-Manguean and Mixe–Zoque languages as well as some language isolates and unclassified languages known to the region. Similarities have been noted between many of the languages of Mesoamerica. In their 1986 paper “Meso-America as a Linguistic Area” the above authors explored several proposed areal features of which they discarded most as being weakly attested, possibly by chance or inheritance or not confined to the Mesoamerican region. However, five traits in particular were shown to be widely attested among the languages, with boundaries coinciding with that of the Mesoamerican region and having a probable origin through diffusion.” ref

2. Numic languagesUto-Aztecan languages, “which include seven languages spoken by Native American peoples traditionally living in the Great BasinColorado River basin, Snake River basin, and southern Great PlainsNumic: * Central Numic languages: ComancheTimbisha (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Western, Central, and Eastern). Shoshoni (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Western, Gosiute, Northern, and Eastern) * Southern Numic languages: KawaiisuColorado River (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Chemehuevi, Southern Paiute, and Ute). * Western Numic languages: Mono (two main dialects: Eastern and Western), Northern Paiute (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Southern Nevada, Northern Nevada, Oregon, and Bannock).” ref

ref, ref

Uto-Aztecan languages is a family of indigenous languages of the Americas, consisting of over thirty languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Utah and the Nahuan languages (also known as Aztecan) of Mexico. The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of languages, and geographic extension. The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Idaho, while the southernmost is the Pipil language of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Most scholars view the breakup of Proto-Uto-Aztecan as a case of the gradual disintegration of a dialect continuum.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

California-Peruvian connection

“The Cell study also revealed a surprising connection between ancient people living in California’s Channel Islands and the southern Peruvian Andes at least 4,200 years ago. It appears that these two geographically distant groups have a shared ancestry, the researchers found. It’s unlikely that people living in the Channel Islands actually traveled south to Peru, the researchers said. Rather, it’s possible that these groups’ ancestors sallied forth thousands of years earlier, with some ending up in the Channel Islands and others in South America. But those genes didn’t become common in Peru until much later, around 4,200 years ago, when the population may have exploded, the researchers said. It could be that this ancestry arrived in South America thousands of years before and we simply don’t have earlier individuals showing it,” study co-lead researcher Nathan Nakatsuka, a research assistant in the Reich lab at Harvard Medical School, said in the statement. “There is archaeological evidence that the population in the Central Andes area greatly expanded after around 5,000 years ago. Spreads of particular subgroups during these events may be why we detect this ancestry afterward.” ref

Tlingit-related people and California

“Even with today’s DNA testing, the origin of the Tlingit people is not certain. It is generally accepted they came from the Eastern Hemisphere across the Bering Strait and down into Southeastern Alaska. Some believe the ancient imigration by-passed the glacier-choked panhandle and instead populated parts of California and the Lower 48, even as far south as South America, and then returned later when the ice had receded. Others believe some of these ancient travelers remained to settle this area. The ocean provided not only food, but also a transportation corridor. Highly skilled navigators with seaworthy canoes, the Tlingit thought nothing of paddling for days in any direction. The Chilkats and Chilkoots also had overland routes to the interior. A great trade empire was established from interior Alaska/Canada south to northern California. In the Americas, this trade empire was rivaled in size only by the Incas.” ref

“Somewhat similar to Indigenous peoples in the Pacific Northwest, the Indigenous peoples of California, at least most tribes practiced forest gardening or permaculture and controlled burning to ensure the availability of food and medicinal plants as well as ecosystem balance.” ref

The indigenous people practiced various forms of sophisticated forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands to ensure availability of food and medicine plants. They controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology; this prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low-density “wild” agriculture in loose rotation. By burning underbrush and grass, the natives revitalized patches of land and provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of fire-stick farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle; a permaculture.” ref

“Tribes in California lived in societies where men and women had different roles. Women were generally responsible for weaving, harvesting, processing, and preparing food, while men were generally responsible for hunting and other forms of labor. It was also noted by Juan Crespi and Pedro Fages of “men who dressed as women” being an integral part of native society. The Spanish generally detested these people, who they referred to as joyas in mission records. With colonialism “joyas were driven from their communities by tribal members at the instigation of priests and made homeless.” The joyas traditionally were responsible for deathburial, and mourning rituals and performed women’s roles.” ref

Haplogroup Q1a3a is a Y chromosome haplogroup generally associated with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. The Q-M3 mutation appeared on the Q lineage roughly 10 to 15 thousand years ago, as the migration throughout the Americas was underway by the early Paleo-Indians. The Na-Dené, Inuit, and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however, which are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians along with various mtDNA mutations. This suggests that the migrant ancestors of the current inhabitants of the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations. Genetic analyses of HLA I and HLA II genes as well as HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 gene frequencies links the Ainu people of Japan to some Indigenous peoples of the Americas, especially to populations on the Pacific Northwest Coast such as Tlingit. The scientists suggest that the main ancestor of the Ainu and of some Native American groups can be traced back to Paleolithic groups in Southern Siberia.” ref

“Populations carrying Q-M3 are widespread throughout the Americas. Since the discovery of Q-M3, several subclades of Q-M3 bearing populations have been discovered in the Americas as well. An example is in South America, where some populations have a high prevalence of SNP M19, which defines subclade Q-M19. M19 has been detected in 59% of Amazonian Ticuna men and in 10% of Wayuu men. Subclades Q-M19 and Q-M199 appear to be unique to South American populations and suggests that population isolation and perhaps even the establishment of tribes began soon after migration into the Americas. Q-M19 lineage is found among Indigenous South Americans, and is approximately 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. The Kennewick Man has a Y chromosome that belongs to the most common sub-clade Q1b1a1a-M3 while the Anzick’s Y chromosome belongs to the minor Q1b1a2-M971 lineage.” ref

NORTH AMERICAN OBSIDIAN

“Obsidian is restricted to volcanic regions, and in the United States, obsidian outcrops are widely distributed in the Mountain West, Southwest, California, Oregon, and Washington State.  Many of these sources are represented among Native American artifacts housed in the Museum’s North American collections.   The Field Museum Anthropology Department recently began building up a collection of obsidian source samples from the American West for use in identifying the sources from which these artifacts originated.  During survey work in the Fall of 2010, Field Museum researchers visited sources in northern Arizona and New Mexico.  Additional source samples, provided by archaeologists at Idaho State University, have been acquired from important sources in Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming.  At present, more than 30 chemically distinct sources are represented in our North American obsidian collections.” ref

Obsidian Sources from Southeast Alaska

“In this study archaeologists looked at stone implements–microblade cores–made of obsidian from prehistoric sites across Southeast Alaska that are dated to roughly 10,000 years ago. The suite of six sites (Groundhog Bay II, Hidden Falls, Irish Creek, Shuk‐Kaa Cave, Neck Lake Terrace, and Shaheen Falls) examined here mark the first archaeologically visible human occupation of the islands of Southeast Alaska. Researchers used chemical analyses to recognize distinctive geochemical fingerprints of both artifacts and geological sources and, in turn, were able to reconstruct ancient paths of transport or trade.” ref

“Most of the tools were found to come from a local source of high-quality obsidian found at Obsidian Cove on Suemez Island, Alaska and these were transported over distances up to 220 miles. A few obsidian cores were derived from a slightly closer source in interior British Columbia, Mount Edziza, at roughly 180 miles in a straight line distance, but which would have required a circuitous riverine or overland route to access. Prehistoric use of a newly documented source of obsidian from Zim Creek on Kupreanof Island, Alaska is described here for the first time.” ref

“Glenrose Cannery Site: Old Cordilleran period, which is between 5,000 and 9,000 years old.” ref

 “Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock.” ref

An Overview of Alaskan’s Prehistoric Cultures: https://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/oha173overviewofalaskaprehistory.pdf

Early Peoples

“Lt. Whidbey was not the first to see Glacier Bay. His record includes mention of the natives who paddled out in their canoes from what is now Pt. Carolus to meet his boats and offer to trade. Were these descendents of the people who once lived in the Bay but were forced out by the advancing glacier? Tlingit oral history is corroborated by modern science — it appears that lower Glacier Bay was habitable for many centuries up until about 300 years ago, when a final glacial surge would have forced the human habitants to flee their homeland. A rich oral tradition and detailed place names speak volumes of the history of the area. How long they might have been there is unknown. There were people living over 9,000 years ago at nearby Groundhog Bay, but we may never know who they were. A site on Baranof Island shows that people with an unmistakable northwest coast culture have been in the region for at least the last 3,000 years.” ref

“Even as Glacier Bay itself lay encased in ice, native people carried on their activities in many places along the nearby coast, places that may have been free of ice for as long as 13,000 years. The oldest known site in Glacier Bay National Park, located in Dundas Bay, is about 800 years old. Natives were at Lituya Bay, on the park’s wild outer coast, to greet Lapérouse in 1786. Although a series of earthquake-triggered tidal waves, the latest in 1959, devastated most of the shoreline of Lituya Bay, a pocket of undisturbed forest still harbors archeological evidence of their life there. The Tlingit have traditionally occupied much of Southeast Alaska, from Yakutat in the North to Ketchikan in the South. Oral history and scientific findings corroborate that the ancestors of the Huna Tlingit occupied Glacier Bay long before the last glacier advance. This place was their home and was known as S’e Shuyee or “edge of the glacial silt.” ref

A Place Where Chitons are Cooked: The Bear Cove Fauna in the Context of the Origins of Northwest Coast Maritime Culture by Catherine Carlson

“Abstract: The Bear Cove site (EeSu 8) was excavated in 1978 on the northern end of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The 8,200 years ago stratigraphic sequence included shell midden and non-shell deposits, an early Pebble Tool Tradition artifact assemblage and later Developmental Northwest Coast artifact assemblages, radio-carbon dated samples (uncalibrated), and extensive faunal remains. This paper will present an overview of the hitherto unreported complete faunal assemblage from the early 8,020 years ago component, to the later post-4,000 years old shell midden components of the site. The faunal data indicate a record of a fully marine-adapted culture that has focused on the sea for subsistence since the early occupation.” ref

“Pacific Northwest, showing early Holocene sites: Northwest Coast : (1) Bear Cove EeSu-8, (2) Chuck Lake Crg-237, (3) Glenrose Cannery DgRr6, (4) Kilgii Gwaay (1325T), (5) Tahkenitch 35DO130; Plateau : (6) Bernard Creek Rockshelter 10IH483, (7) Bob’s Point 45KL219, (8) Kirkwood Bar 10IH699, (9) Lind Coulee 45GR97, (10) Marmes 45FR50 (includes Rockshelter and Floodplain localities), (11) Plew 45DO387, (12) The Dalles Roadcut 35WS8; and South-Central Northwest Coast (A) and Northern Columbia Plateau (B) subareas.” https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Pacific-Northwest-showing-early-Holocene-sites-Northwest-Coast-1-Bear-Cove-EeSu-8_fig1_226649913

Norte Chico civilization / Caral–Supe civilization

Caral–Supe (also known as Caral and Norte Chico) was a complex pre-Columbian era society that included as many as thirty major population centers in what is now the Caral region of north-central coastal Peru. The civilization flourished between the fourth and second millennia BCE, with the formation of the first city generally dated to around 3500 BCE, at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area. It is from 3100 BCE onward that large-scale human settlement and communal construction become clearly apparent, which lasted until a period of decline around 1800 BCE. Since the early 21st century, it has been recognized as the oldest-known civilization in the Americas, and as one of the six sites where civilisation separately originated in the ancient world.” ref

“This civilization flourished along three rivers, the Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. These river valleys each have large clusters of sites. Farther south, there are several associated sites along the Huaura River. The alternative name, Caral–Supe, is derived from the city of Caral in the Supe Valley, a large and well-studied Caral–Supe site. Complex society in the Caral–Supe arose a millennium after Sumer in Mesopotamia, was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids, and predated the Mesoamerican Olmec by nearly two millennia.” ref

“In archaeological nomenclature, Caral–Supe is a pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic; it completely lacked ceramics and no evidence of visual art has survived. The most impressive achievement of the civilization was its monumental architecture, including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas. Archaeological evidence suggests use of textile technology and, possibly, the worship of common deity symbols, both of which recur in pre-Columbian Andean cultures. Sophisticated government is presumed to have been required to manage the ancient Caral. Questions remain over its organization, particularly the influence of food resources on politics.” ref

“The dating of the Caral–Supe sites has pushed back the estimated beginning date of complex societies in the Peruvian region by more than one thousand years. The Chavín culture, c. 900 BCE, had previously been considered the first civilization of the area. Regularly, it still is cited incorrectly as such in general works.” ref

“The discovery of Caral–Supe has also shifted the focus of research away from the highland areas of the Andes and lowlands adjacent to the mountains (where the Chavín, and later Inca, had their major centers) to the Peruvian littoral, or coastal regions. Caral is located in a north-central area of the coast, approximately 150 to 200 km north of Lima, roughly bounded by the Lurín Valley on the south and the Casma Valley on the north. It comprises four coastal valleys: the Huaura, Supe, Pativilca, and Fortaleza. Known sites are concentrated in the latter three, which share a common coastal plain. The three principal valleys cover only 1,800 km², and research has emphasized the density of the population centers.” ref

“The Peruvian littoral appears an “improbable, even aberrant” candidate for the “pristine” development of civilization, compared to other world centers. It is extremely arid, bounded by two rain shadows (caused by the Andes to the east, and the Pacific trade winds to the west). The region is punctuated by more than 50 rivers that carry Andean snowmelt. The development of widespread irrigation from these water sources is seen as decisive in the emergence of Caral–Supe; since all of the monumental architecture at various sites has been found close to irrigation channels.” ref

“The radiocarbon work of Jonathan Haas et al., found that 10 of 95 samples taken in the Pativilca and Fortaleza areas dated from before 3500 BCE. The oldest, dating from 9210 BCE, provides “limited indication” of human settlement during the Pre-Columbian Early Archaic era. Two dates of 3700 BCE are associated with communal architecture, but are likely to be anomalous. It is from 3200 BCE onward that large-scale human settlement and communal construction are clearly apparent. Mann, in a survey of the literature in 2005, suggests “sometime before 3200 BCE, and possibly before 3500 BCE” as the beginning date of the Caral–Supe formative period. He notes that the earliest date securely associated with a city is 3500 BCE, at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area of the north, based on Haas’s dates.” ref

“Haas’s early-third-millennium dates suggest that the development of coastal and inland sites occurred in parallel. But, from 2500 to 2000 BCE, during the period of greatest expansion, the population and development decisively shifted toward the inland sites. All development apparently occurred at large interior sites such as Caral, although they remained dependent on fish and shellfish from the coast. The peak in dates is in keeping with Shady’s dates at Caral, which show habitation from 2627 BCE to 2020 BCE. That coastal and inland sites developed in tandem remains disputed.” ref

“By around 2200 BCE, the influence of Norte Chico civilization spread far along the coast. To the south, it went as far as the Chillon valley, and the site of El Paraiso. To the north, it spread as far as the Santa River valley. c. 1800 BCE, the Caral–Supe civilization began to decline, with more powerful centers appearing to the south and north along the coast, and to the east inside the belt of the Andes. The success of irrigation-based agriculture at Caral–Supe may have contributed to its being eclipsed. Anthropologist Professor Winifred Creamer of Northern Illinois University notes that “when this civilization is in decline, we begin to find extensive canals farther north. People were moving to more fertile ground and taking their knowledge of irrigation with them”. It would be a thousand years before the rise of the next great Peruvian culture, the Chavín.” ref

“Cultural links with the highland areas have been noted by archaeologists. Ruth Shady highlights the links with the Kotosh Religious Tradition:

Numerous architectural features found among the settlements of Supe, including subterranean circular courts, stepped pyramids and sequential platforms, as well as material remains and their cultural implications, excavated at Aspero and the valley sites we are digging (Caral, Chupacigarro, Lurihuasi, Miraya), are shared with other settlements of the area that participated in what is known as the Kotosh Religious Tradition. Most specific among these features include rooms with benches and hearths with subterranean ventilation ducts, wall niches, biconvex beads, and musical flutes.” ref

Research into Caral–Supe continues, with many unsettled questions. Debate is ongoing regarding two related questions: the degree to which the flourishing of the Caral–Supe was based on maritime food resources, and the exact relationship this implies between the coastal and inland sites. A broad outline of the Caral–Supe diet has been suggested. At Caral, the edible domesticated plants noted by Shady are squashbeanslúcumaguava, pacay (Inga feuilleei), and sweet potato. Haas et al. noted the same foods in their survey farther north, while adding avocado and achira. In 2013, good evidence for maize also was documented by Haas et al.” ref

“There was also a significant seafood component at both coastal and inland sites. Shady notes that “animal remains are almost exclusively marine” at Caral, including clams and mussels, and large amounts of anchovies and sardines. That the anchovy fish reached inland is clear, although Haas suggests that “shellfish [which would include clams and mussels], sea mammals, and seaweed do not appear to have been significant portions of the diet in the inland, non-maritime sites.” ref

“The role of seafood in the Caral–Supe diet has aroused debate. Much early fieldwork was conducted in the region of Aspero on the coast, before the full scope and inter-connectedness of the several sites of the civilization were realized. In a 1973 paper, Michael E. Moseley contended that a maritime subsistence (seafood) economy had been the basis of the society and its remarkably early flourishing, a theory later elaborated as a “maritime foundation of Andean civilization” (MFAC). He confirmed a previously observed lack of ceramics at Aspero, and he deduced that “hummocks” on the site constituted the remains of artificial platform mounds.” ref

“This thesis of a maritime foundation was contrary to the general scholarly consensus that the rise of civilization was based on intensive agriculture, particularly of at least one cereal. The production of agricultural surpluses had long been seen as essential in promoting population density and the emergence of complex society. Moseley’s ideas would be debated and challenged (that maritime remains and their caloric contribution were overestimated, for example), but have been treated as plausible as late as 2005, when Mann conducted a summary of the literature.” ref

“Concomitant to the maritime subsistence hypothesis was an implied dominance of sites immediately adjacent to the coast over other centers. This idea was shaken by the realization of the magnitude of Caral, an inland site. Supplemental to a 1997 article by Shady dating Caral, a 2001 Science news article emphasized the dominance of agriculture and also suggested that Caral was the oldest urban center in Peru (and the entire Americas). It rejected the idea that civilization might have begun adjacent to the coast and then moved inland. One archaeologist was quoted as suggesting that “rather than coastal antecedents to monumental inland sites, what we have now are coastal satellite villages to monumental inland sites.” ref

“These assertions were quickly challenged by Sandweiss and Moseley, who observed that Caral, although being the largest and most complex preceramic site, it is not the oldest. They admitted the importance of agriculture to industry and to augment diet, while broadly affirming “the formative role of marine resources in early Andean civilization”. Scholars now agree that the inland sites did have significantly greater populations, and that there were “so many more people along the four rivers than on the shore that they had to have been dominant.” ref

“The remaining question is which of the areas developed first and created a template for subsequent development. Haas rejects suggestions that maritime development at sites immediately adjacent to the coast was initial, pointing to contemporaneous development based on his dating. Moseley remains convinced that coastal Aspero is the oldest site, and that its maritime subsistence served as a basis for the civilization. The use of cotton (of the species Gossypium barbadense) played an important economic role in the relationship between the inland and the coastal settlements in this area of Peru. Nevertheless, scholars are still divided over the exact chronology of these developments.” ref

“Although not edible, cotton was the most important product of irrigation in the Caral–Supe culture, vital to the production of fishing nets (that in turn provided maritime resources) as well as to textiles and textile technology. Haas notes that “control over cotton allows a ruling elite to provide the benefit of cloth for clothing, bags, wraps, and adornment”. He is willing to admit to a mutual dependency dilemma: “The prehistoric residents of the Norte Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to make the nets to catch the fish.” Thus, identifying cotton as a vital resource produced in the inland does not by itself resolve the issue of whether the inland centers were a progenitor for those on the coast, or vice versa. Moseley argues that successful maritime centers would have moved inland to find cotton.” ref

“In a 2018 publication, David G. Beresford-Jones with coauthors have defended Moseley’s (1975) Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization (MFAC) hypothesis. The authors modified and refined the Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization hypothesis of Moseley. Thus, according to them, the MFAC hypothesis now “emerges more persuasive than ever”. It was the potential for increased quantities of food production that the cultivation of cotton allowed that was the key in precipitating revolutionary social change and social complexity, according to the authors. Previous to that, the gathering of bast fibers of wild Asclepias was used for fiber production, which was far less efficient.” ref

“Beresford-Jones and others also offered further support for their theories in 2021. The degree of centralized authority is difficult to ascertain, but architectural construction patterns are indicative, at least in certain places at certain times, of an elite population who wielded considerable power: while some of the monumental architecture was constructed incrementally, other buildings, such as the two main platform mounds at Caral, appear to have been constructed in one or two intense construction phases. As further evidence of centralized control, Haas points to remains of large stone warehouses found at Upaca, on the Pativilca, as emblematic of authorities able to control vital resources such as cotton.” ref

“Haas suggests that the labour mobilization patterns revealed by the archaeological evidence, point to a unique emergence of human government, one of two alongside Sumer (or three, if Mesoamerica is included as a separate case). While in other cases, the idea of government would have been borrowed or copied, in this small group, government was invented. Other archaeologists have rejected such claims as hyperbolic.” ref

“In exploring the basis of possible government, Haas suggests three broad bases of power for early complex societies:

  • economic,
  • ideology, and
  • physical.” ref

“He finds the first two present in ancient Caral–Supe. Economic authority would have rested on the control of cotton, edible plants, and associated trade relationships, with power centered on the inland sites. Haas tentatively suggests that the scope of this economic power base may have extended widely: there are only two confirmed shore sites in the Caral–Supe (Aspero and Bandurria) and possibly two more, but cotton fishing nets and domesticated plants have been found up and down the Peruvian coast. It is possible that the major inland centers of Caral–Supe, were at the center of a broad regional trade network centered on these resources.” ref

“Citing Shady, a 2005 article in Discover magazine suggests a rich and varied trade life: “[Caral] exported its own products and those of Aspero to distant communities in exchange for exotic imports: Spondylus shells from the coast of Ecuador, rich dyes from the Andean highlands, hallucinogenic snuff from the Amazon.” (Given the still limited extent of Caral–Supe research, such claims should be treated circumspectly.) Other reports on Shady’s work indicate Caral traded with communities in the jungle farther inland and, possibly, with people from the mountains.” ref

“Haas postulates that ideological power exercised by leadership was based on apparent access to deities and the supernatural. Evidence regarding Caral–Supe religion is limited: in 2003, an image of the Staff God, a leering figure with a hood and fangs, was found on a gourd that dated to 2250 BCE. The Staff God is a major deity of later Andean cultures, and Winifred Creamer suggests the find points to worship of common symbols of deities. As with much other research at Caral–Supe, the nature and significance of the find has been disputed by other researchers.” ref

“Mann postulates that the act of architectural construction and maintenance at Caral–Supe may have been a spiritual or religious experience: a process of communal exaltation and ceremony. Shady has called Caral “the sacred city” (la ciudad sagrada) and reports that socio-economic and political focus was on the temples, which were periodically remodeled, with major burnt offerings associated with the remodeling.” ref

“Haas notes the absence of any suggestion of physical bases of power, that is, defensive construction, at Caral–Supe. There is no evidence of warfare “of any kind or at any level during the Preceramic Period“. Mutilated bodies, burned buildings, and other tell-tale signs of violence are absent and settlement patterns are completely non-defensive. The evidence of the development of complex government in the absence of warfare contrasts markedly to archaeological theory, which suggests that human beings move away from kin-based groups to larger units resembling “states” for mutual defense of often scarce resources. In Caral–Supe, a vital resource was present: arable land generally, and the cotton crop specifically, but Mann noted that apparently, the move to greater complexity by the culture was not driven by the need for defense or warfare.” ref

“Caral–Supe sites are known for their density of large sites with immense architecture. Haas argues that the density of sites in such a small area is globally unique for a nascent civilization. During the third millennium BCE, Caral–Supe may have been the most densely populated area of the world (excepting, possibly, Northern China). The Supe, Pativilca, Fortaleza, and Huaura River Valleys of Caral–Supe each have several related sites.” ref

“Evidence from the ground-breaking work during 1973 at Aspero, at the mouth of the Supe Valley, suggested a site of approximately 13 hectares (32 acres). Surveying of the midden suggested extensive prehistoric construction activity. Small-scale terracing was noted, along with more sophisticated platform mound masonry. As many as eleven artificial mounds were estimated to exist at the site. Moseley calls these “Corporate Labor Platforms”, given that their size, layout, and construction materials and techniques would have required an organized workforce.” ref

“The survey of the northern rivers found sites between 10 and 100 ha (25 and 247 acres); between one and seven large platform mounds—rectangular, terraced pyramids—were discovered, ranging in size from 3,000 m3 (110,000 cu ft) to more than 100,000 m3 (3,500,000 cu ft). Shady notes that the central zone of Caral, with monumental architecture, covers an area of just greater than 65 hectares (160 acres). Also, six platform mounds, numerous smaller mounds, two sunken circular plazas, and a variety of residential architecture were discovered at this site.” ref

“The monumental architecture was constructed with quarried stone and river cobbles. Using reed “shicra-bags”, some of which have been preserved, laborers would have hauled the material to sites by hand. Roger Atwood of Archaeology magazine describes the process:

Armies of workers would gather a long, durable grass known as shicra in the highlands above the city, tie the grass strands into loosely meshed bags, fill the bags with boulders, and then pack the trenches behind each successive retaining wall of the step pyramids with the stone-filled bags.” ref

“In this way, the people of Norte Chico achieved formidable architectural success. The largest of the platforms mounds at Caral, the Piramide Mayor, measures 160 by 150 m (520 by 490 ft) and rises 18 m (59 ft) high. In its summation of the 2001 Shady paper, the BBC suggests workers would have been “paid or compelled” to work on centralized projects of this sort, with dried anchovies possibly serving as a form of currency. Mann points to “ideology, charisma, and skilfully timed reinforcement” from leaders.” ref

“When compared to the common Eurasian models of the development of civilization, Caral–Supe’s differences are striking. In Caral–Supe, a total lack of ceramics persists across the period. Crops were cooked by roasting. The lack of pottery was accompanied by a lack of archaeologically apparent art. In conversation with Mann, Alvaro Ruiz observes: “In the Norte Chico we see almost no visual arts. No sculpture, no carving or bas-relief, almost no painting or drawing—the interiors are completely bare. What we do see are these huge mounds—and textiles.” ref

“While the absence of ceramics appears anomalous, Mann notes that the presence of textiles is intriguing. Quipu (or khipu), string-based recording devices, have been found at Caral, suggesting a writing, or proto-writing, system at Caral–Supe.  (The discovery was reported by Mann in Science in 2005, but has not been formally published or described by Shady.) The exact use of quipu in this and later Andean cultures has been widely debated. Originally, it was believed to be a simple mnemonic technique used to record numeric information, such as a count of items bought and sold. Evidence has emerged, however, that the quipu also may have recorded logographic information in the same way writing does. Research has focused on the much larger sample of a few hundred quipu dating to Inca times. The Caral–Supe discovery remains singular and undeciphered.” ref

“Other finds at Caral–Supe have proved suggestive. While visual arts appear absent, the people may have played instrumental music: thirty-two flutes, crafted from pelican bone, have been discovered. The oldest known depiction of the Staff God was found in 2003 on some broken gourd fragments in a burial site in the Pativilca River Valley and the gourd was carbon dated to 2250 BCE. While still fragmentary, such archaeological evidence corresponds to the patterns of later Andean civilization and may indicate that Caral–Supe served as a template. Along with the specific finds, Mann highlights

“the primacy of exchange over a wide area, the penchant for collective, festive civic work projects, [and] the high valuation of textiles and textile technology” within Norte Chico as patterns that would recur later in the Peruvian cradle of civilization.” ref

Staff God (May relate to Viracocha sky/sun god pre-Inca and Inca mythology?)

In “Southern Andean Iconographic Series,” the Staff God pose is a religious icon and a standardized pose reminiscent in its way of the standardized poses in Byzantine art. The pose shows a front-facing human or human-like figure with vertical attributes, one in each hand. There is no uniform representation of a “Staff God.” Dozens of variations of “Staff Gods” exist. Some scholars think that some of these personages are possible depictions of Viracocha or Thunupa (the Aymara weather god). However, there is little evidence to support the idea that these front-facing figures do represent deities. Some researchers point to their attributes and spatial organization, which seem to indicate that they are ritual practitioners. Some attributes in their hands were identified as Qirus (Andean ritual cups), Snuff trays (used in ceremonial contexts), and Spear-throwers. The “rays” radiating or sprouting out of the faces of Tiwanaku front-facing figures appear to have approximately the value of an aureole.” ref

They may represent flows and distribution of energy. At the Wari site of Conchopata a vessel was found which shows a Staff God in which the “rays” can be interpreted as a Anadenanthera colubrina tree sprouting from its head whereas the circular elements do represent its seed pods. The oldest known depiction of a Staff God was found in 2003 on some broken gourd fragments in a burial site in the Pativilca River Valley (Norte Chico region) and carbon dated to 2250 BCE. This makes it the oldest religious icon to be found in the Americas. There are scholars who maintain that the Wari-Tiwanaku Staff God is the forerunner of the Incan principal gods, Sun, Moon, and Thunder. It served as the primary religious icon of the entire Peruvian Andes, particularly during the Early Horizon (900-200 BCE) and beyond. The worship of Staff Gods spread to the Central Andes during the Middle Horizon (600-1000 CE) This is supported by excavated Middle Horizon artifacts that resembled the Staff-God.” ref

“The staff god was a basic iconography shared by the cultures of pre-Columbian Peru, particularly those occupying the northern coast and the southern highlands. This is seen in the stylistic uniformity of the icons and representations, which suggested widespread adherence. There were varying depictions of the Staff-God among these Andean cultures. However, it was often portrayed as a deity in apotheosis, with hands always holding instruments of power. For instance, an artifact found at Chavin de Huantar showed the deity holding a Spondylus and Strombus shells, which were female and male symbols, respectively. This representation indicated how the Staff-God wielded authority to maintain social harmony and the Andean ideal of gender complementarity.” ref

“Another Early Horizon sculpted stone, the Raimondi Stele, is perhaps the most popular representation and depicted the Staff-God as a sky or lightning god plunging down to earth. Representations of the southern highland staff god did not only carry motifs but were also presented with accompanying consorts in the form of deities painted on textiles used to decorate temple walls or ceramic vessels. The Staff God has one of the most important iconographical elements in central Andean archaeology, and this is prominent in both portable and fixed art using different media such as stone, textile, and ceramic.” ref

“A form of the staff god, for example, takes a central role in the Sun Gate of the Tiwanaku culture, a single-stone monolith. Tunics and ceramics from both the Tiwanaku and Wari cultures of the Middle Horizon period showcase a similar god. Another example is the giant offering jars found at Qunchupata. They were painted with the Staff-God’s image, one that bears resemblance to the god’s depiction at the back of the Tiwanaku’s Ponce Monolith.” ref

Viracocha (also Wiraqocha, Huiracocha; Quechua Wiraqucha) is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. According to the myth, Viracocha had the human appearance and was generally considered bearded. The word “Viracocha” literally means “Sea Foam.” According to the myth, he ordered the construction of Tiwanaku. It is also said that he was accompanied by men, also referred to as Viracochas. It is often referred to with several epithets. Such compound names include Ticsi Viracocha (T’iqsi Wiraqocha), Contiti Viracocha, and, occasionally, Kon-Tiki Viracocha (the source of the name of Thor Heyerdahl’s raft). Other designations are “the creator,” Viracochan Pachayachicachan, Viracocha Pachayachachi or Pachayachachic (“teacher of the world”).” ref

“For the Inca the Viracocha cult was more important than the sun cult. Viracocha was the most important deity in the Inca pantheon and was seen as the creator of all things, or the substance from which all things are created, and intimately associated with the sea. Viracocha was immediately followed by Inti, the Sun. Viracocha created the universe, sun, moon, and stars, time (by commanding the sun to move over the sky), and civilization itself. Viracocha was worshipped as god of the sun and of storms. So-called Staff Gods do not all necessarily fit well with the Viracocha interpretation.” ref

Tiqsi Huiracocha (Spanish:Ticsi Viracocha) may have several meanings. In the Quechuan languages, tiqsi means “origin” or “beginning”, wira means fat, and qucha means lake, sea, or reservoir. Viracocha’s many epithets include great, all knowing, powerful, etc. Some people state that Wiraqucha could mean “Fat (or foam) of the sea,”  etymology that has been discarded for grammatical considerations (constituent order in Quechua) at least since Inca Garcilaso. According to German archeologist Max Uhle, “foam lake” is an incomprehensible name. He points out that Vira (Huira) can also be derived from the Quechua word huyra (“the end of all things”), and that Ticsi Viracocha, therefore, could have the meaning “lake of origin and of the end of all things.” Some linguists think that linguistic, historical and archaeological evidence suggests that the name could be a borrowing of Aymara Wila Quta (wila “blood”; quta “lake”), due to the sacrifices of camelids that were celebrated at Lake Titiqaqa by pre-Incan Andean cultures that spoke Aymara.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art 

ref 

North America Area (with Deities/paganism and Shamanism/or “medicine people”) 

  1. Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages
  2. Na-Dené, Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit languages
  3. The Algic: Algonquian–Wiyot–Yurok languages
  4. Siouan–Catawban languages
  5. Uto-Aztecan languages
  6. Salishan languages
  7. Muskogean languages

Mesoamerica Aera (with Deities/paganism and Shamanism/or “medicine people”) 

  1. Uto-Aztecan languages
  2. Mayan languages
  3. Chibchan languages

South America Area (with Deities/paganism and Shamanism/or “medicine people”) 

  1. Chibchan languages
  2. Cariban languages
  3. Quechuan languages
  4. Arawakan languages
  5. Tupian languages
  6. Macro-Jê languages
  7. Chonan languages

 Shamanism (simplified to me as a belief that some special person can commune with these perceived spirits on the behalf of others by way of rituals) possibly by at least 30,000 years ago Shamanism is an otherworld connection belief thought to heal the sick, communicate with spirits/deities, and escort souls of the dead.

I think shaman beliefs came into the Americas from North Asia from 24,000 to 1,000 years ago. I think these peoples brought into the Americas a kind/several kinds of Shamanism-totemism with heavy animism. You can find some form of Shamanism, among Uralic, Transeurasian, Dené–Yeniseian, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, and Eskaleut languages.

Dené–Yeniseian languages? (I think similar to the Sami or Ainu peoples, Dené–Yeniseian peoples who migrated related to beliefs that were likely “paganistic” Shamanism, with heavy totemism and Animism themes). Human Migration from Asia into Alaska (North America) (11,000 to 6,000 years ago) “likely relates to the Na-Dene languages described as C-M217/C2/C3/C-M130 DNA lineage”

I think god beliefs (great spirit/shy father god) came into the Americas from North Asia from 7,000 to 5,000 years ago. I think it likely relates to the Na-Dene languages migrations as all of the Na-Dene languages have “great spirit” beliefs and some have shy father god/creator beliefs as well. 

I think Na-Dene speakers brought into the Americas a kind/several kinds of Shamanism-Paganism with Totemism and Animism. Especially a daytime blue sky-god/sun-god but also an earth/moon goddess and bird mythology beliefs. Similar to the Hemudu culture (5500 – 3300 BCE or around 7,500 to 5,300 years ago) from China

“Hemudu’s inhabitants worshiped a sun spirit as well as a fertility spirit. They also enacted shamanistic rituals to the sun and believed in bird totems. A belief in an afterlife and ghosts is thought to have been widespread as well. People were buried with their heads facing east or northeast and most had no burial objects. Infants were buried in urn-casket style burials, while children and adults received earth level burials. They did not have a definite communal burial ground, for the most part, but a clan communal burial ground has been found from the later period. Two groups in separate parts of this burial ground are thought to be two intermarrying clans. There were noticeably more burial goods in this communal burial ground.” ref 

“The Great Spirit has at times been conceptualized as an “anthropomorphic celestial deity,” a god of creation, history, and eternity, who also takes a personal interest in world affairs and might regularly intervene in the lives of human beings. Numerous individuals are held to have been “speakers” for the Great Spirit; persons believed to serve as an earthly mediator responsible for facilitating communication between humans and the supernatural more generally. Such a speaker is generally considered to have an obligation to preserve the spiritual traditions of their respective lineage. The Great Spirit is looked to by spiritual leaders for guidance by individuals as well as communities at large.” ref 

“While belief in an entity or entities known as the Great Spirit exists across numerous indigenous American peoples, individual tribes often demonstrate varying degrees of cultural divergence. As such, a variety of stories, parables, fables, and messages exhibiting different, sometimes contradictory themes and plot elements have been attributed to the same figure by otherwise disparate cultures. Wakan Tanka (Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka) can be interpreted as the power or the sacredness that resides in everything, resembling some animistic and pantheistic beliefs. This term describes every creature and object as wakan (“holy”) or having aspects that are wakantanka corresponds to “great” or “large.” ref 

“The Lakota used Wakan Tanka to refer to an organization or group of sacred entities whose ways were considered mysterious and beyond human understanding. It was the elaboration on these beliefs that prompted scholarly debate suggesting that the term “Great Mystery” could be a more accurate translation of such a concept than “Great Spirit”. Activist Russell Means also promoted the translation “Great Mystery” and the view that Lakota spirituality is not originally monotheistic.” ref

(Native American mythology)

“HAYICANAKO is a Tlingit (Na-dene Language) Earth Goddess. An elderly Goddess who has the world on a stick. ’The Old Woman Beneath Us’. She holds the pole supporting the Earth and gives it a shake now and then if she is not happy about something. In case of earthquakes it is best to placate her by pouring some melting fat on the fire — it will drip down until it reaches her.” ref

“HAYICANAKO is the Tlingit Goddess of natural order. She is a giantess who lives in a mountain, where she holds up a column that supports the earth. When she gets hungry, she loses her concentration and the column starts to quiver, causing earthquakes. Her hunger can be fed by her worshippers throwing fat into their fires. Another version says that earthquakes happen when Raven jostles her arm and tries to make her lose her grip. Hayicanako’s name, which means “Old Woman Underneath Us,” is also seen as HAYICANAK.” ref

 Raven made a woman under the earth to have charge of the rise and fall of the tides.

“Raven made a woman under the earth to have charge of the rise and fall of the tides. One time he wanted to learn about everything under the ocean and had this woman raise the water so that he could go there. He had it rise very slowly so that the people had time to load their canoes and get into them. When the tide had lifted them up between the mountains they could see bears and other wild animals walking around on the still unsubmerged tops. Many of the bears swam out to them, and at that time those who had their dogs had good protection. Some people walled the tops of the mountains about and tied their canoes inside. They could not take much wood up with them. Sometimes hunters see the rocks they piled up there, and at such times it begins to grow foggy. That was a very dangerous time. The people who survived could see trees swept up roots and all by the rush of waters and large devilfish and other creatures were carried up by it.” ref  

Click for more on the myth of Raven and the Tides: Tlingit myth about the origin of the tides.

Tlingit Raven Mythology

 “In the lore of Tlingit, Haida and other northern Native Americans a raven was both a trickster spirit and the creator of the world. The most interesting story about the raven in Tlingit folklore is the one concerning his responsibility for placement of the Sun in the sky.” ref 

“There are countless Raven stories in the Tlingit community, and there are many versions of how Raven came to bring the light to the world. The stories are not necessarily contradictory, but they do emphasize different points and have different details, depending on whom the caretaker of that story was and how he or she was taught to tell the story. Smarch described how angry Raven’s grandfather was when Raven released all of his treasures into the sky. In her telling, he gathered the pitch from all around the house, placed it into a bentwood box and threw it in the fire. Raven could not find the smoke hole and flew around in the black smoke, becoming the black bird we know today. Raven sacrificed his supernatural state of being in order to bring light to the world.” ref 

“In many versions of “Raven and the Box of Daylight” — including both ethnographic accounts and popular English versions of the story — at the beginning of his journey, Raven is white, one marker of his supernatural status. Tlingit scholar and professor Maria Williams wrote in her children’s book “How Raven Stole the Sun (Tales of the People)” that Raven was “pure white from the tips of his claws to the ends of his wings.” Hammond described Raven as a white or translucent being early on in his telling of the story. Depending on whom is telling the story, the details of how Raven became black differ, but the results are always the same. The story of “Raven and the Box of Daylight” contains messages and symbolism of hope, forgiveness, tolerance, love and sacrifice — messages and symbolism that encourage humans to be kinder toward each other.” ref 

“Early records suggest that the Tlingit believed in a creator, Kah-shu-goon-yah, whose name was sacred and never mentioned above a whisper. This primordial grandfather, or “divisible-rich-man,” controlled the sun, moon, stars, and daylight in addition to creating all living things. Little more is known of him. The sacred past centers upon Raven (cultural hero, benefactor, trickster, and rascal) who was credited with organizing the world in its present form and in initiating many Tlingit customs. Raven was never represented, symbolized, or made equal with the supreme being who transcended Tlingit legends. The Tlingit inhabited a world filled with spirits, or jek. These spirits could manifest their power through individuals, animals, or things.”

“Since every material object or physical force could be inhabited by a spirit, Tlingit were taught to respect everything in the universe. The penalty for disrespect was the loss of ability to obtain food. Properly purified persons could acquire spirit power for curing illnesses, for protection in warfare, for success in obtaining wealth, and for ceremonial prerogatives. Each Tlingit had a mortal and an immortal spirit. Spirits of the dead traveled to the appropriate level of heaven commensurate with their moral conduct in this life. Morally respectable people went to the highest heaven, Kiwa-a, a realm of happiness; moral delinquents went to a second level, or Dog Heaven, Ketl-kiwa, a place of torment. Individuals remained in the afterworld for a period of time and then returned to this world as a reincarnation of some deceased maternal relative.” ref 

“Tlingit legends have one great word in our culture: haa shageinyaa. This was a Great Spirit above us, and today we have translated that reverence to God.” ref

 “Wisakedjak (Wìsakedjàk in Algonquin, Wīsahkēcāhk(w) in Cree and Wiisagejaak in Oji-cree) is the Crane Manitou found in northern Algonquian and Dene storytelling, similar to the trickster Nanabozho in Ojibwa aadizookaanan (sacred stories), Inktonme in Assiniboine lore, and Coyote or Raven from many different tribes. His name is found in a number of different forms in the related languages and cultures he appears in, including Weesack-kachack, Wisagatcak, Wis-kay-tchach, Wissaketchak, Woesack-ootchacht, Vasaagihdzak, and Weesageechak. As with most mythological characters, Wisakedjak is used to explain the creation of animals or geographical locations. He is generally portrayed as being responsible for a great flood which destroyed the world. In other stories he is also one of the beings who created the current world, either on his own, or with magic given to him by the Creator for that specific purpose.” ref   

Blackfoot (Algonquian language) Native American Legends: Komorkis (Ko’komiki’somm)

“Komorkis is the Moon Goddesses, second eldest of the sacred Sky People. Komorkis is the wife of the sun god Natos and mother of the stars, of which the most important is Morning-Star. Komorkis is said to be the grandmother of several heroes of Blackfoot legend, such as Star-Boy.” ref

Manchu Shamanism Sky Deities?

“The ethnic religion practiced by most of the Manchu people, the major Tungusic group in China. this religion is an animistic and polytheistic religion, believing in several gods and spirits, led by a universal sky god called Abka Enduri (“Sky God” or “God of Heaven”), also referred to as Abka Han (“Sky Khan” or “Khan of Heaven”) and Abka Ama (“Sky Father”), originally Abka Hehe (“Sky Woman”, by extension “Sky Mother”) who is the source of all life and creation. Deities (enduri) enliven every aspect of nature, and the worship of these gods is believed to bring favor, health, and prosperity. Many of the deities were originally Manchu ancestors, and people with the same surname are generated by the same god.” ref 

 (Taevaisa: Taevas = sky, isa = father) – On Etymology of Finnic Term for ‘Sky’

“The Finnic term for ‘sky’ (Estonian taevas; Finnish taivas; Livonian tōvaz; Veps taivaz; Votic taivas) has no cognate in other Uralic languages. The present study finds that this Finnic word has cognates in Sinitic languages supported by a deep rhyme correspondence consisting of five etymologies; therefore, this word root must be aboriginal in Sino-Uralic languages. Using etymological methods, the present study has identified five Sinitic and Uralic shared etymologies. These five etymologies form a rhyme correspondence. This regular sound change validates the etymological connection between Sinitic and Uralic. The Finnic term for ‘sky’ is among these five etymologies. It is demonstrated that this word root should be aboriginal in Sino-Uralic languages.” ref, ref

Sino-Uralic or Sino-Finnic is a proposed language family consisting of the Sinitic languages (Chinese) and the Uralic languages.

“Gao suggested the proto-population could have been lived in Neolithic China and carried the Haplogroup N, claiming that a common proto-language could have been spoken around 5.000-10.000 years ago. Gao argued that Chinese has three major layers, he saw the root of Chinese as coming from a common Sino-Uralic source, the second layer coming from Indo-European during the Chalcolithic age or later and the third layer coming from Yeniseian during the Bronze Age.” ref 

“Buga” Siberian Evenki Supreme God of Everything?

“One significant feature of the Evenki is that the supreme deities can be both male gods and female goddesses. According to traditional Evenk ideas, the Universe consists of three worlds: the upper (Ugu Buga), the middle (Doolin Buga), the lower (Hergu Buga). The upper world was located at sunrise, the lower at sunset. The upper and lower worlds are inaccessible to ordinary people and are inhabited by spirit gods. One of the main deities is Seveki spirit, whose function is the creator of all living things. The spirit of Enekan Buga monitors the life of people and animals, periodically visiting the earth. His assistant, Enekan Togo, is a spirit of fire living in a home. Through fire, the Evenki address spirits.” ref, ref

Nanabozho great spirit-being?

“Nanabozo is a supernatural being of various Indigenous oral traditions. He is the embodiment of life, with the power to create life in others. In some Anishinaabe and Cree stories, Nanabozo is a main player in the creation of Turtle Island. Nanabozho is a shapeshifter who is both zoomorphic as well as anthropomorphic, meaning that Nanabozho can take the shape of animals or humans in storytelling. Thus Nanabush takes many different forms in storytelling, often changing depending on the tribe. The majority of storytelling depicts Nanabozho through a zoomorphic lens. In the Arctic and sub-Arctic, the trickster is usually called Raven. Coyote is present in the area of California, Oregon, the inland plateau, the Great Basin, and the Southst and Southern Plains. Rabbit or Hare is the trickster figure in the Southeast, and Spider is in the northern plains. Meanwhile, Wolverine and Jay are the trickster in parts of Canada. Often, Nanabozho takes the shape of these animals because of their frequent presence among tribes. The animals listed above have similar behavioral patterns. The gender identity of Nanabozho changes depending on the storytelling. Because Nanabozho is a shapeshifter, they are androgynous. While the majority of stories told about the trickster figure are written with he/him pronouns, the gender identity changes depending on the story and many are written with feminine pronouns.” ref, ref

Puebloan Sky Father and Earth Mother?

PuebloanZuni: (Ápoyan Ta’chu) Sky Father and (Áwitelin Tsíta) Earth Mother

“The mist clouds formed into the Great Waters, where Earth Mother, Áwitelin Tsíta, and Sky Father, Ápoyan Ta’chu, formed, the two of whom conceived all men and creatures in the four-fold womb of the world. The Sun Father and Earth Mother then brought forth the Twin Children of the Sun, the twin brothers Ko’wituma and Wats’usi. These twins were endowed with sacred knowledge, caps, bows, arrows, and shields to have dominion over all men and creatures as Twin War Gods.” ref

Puebloan-Hopi: (Tawa) Sky Father and (Kokyangwuti) Earth Mother

“Tawa (the sun god) and Kokyangwuti/Spider Woman (Spider Grandmother) who is identified with the Earth Goddess. They separate themselves to create other lesser gods, then create the earth and its creatures.(close to the Zuni creation myth)” ref

Puebloan-Navajo: (TSOHANOAI) Sky Father and (Estsanatlehi) Earth Mother

“Estsanatlehi a Fertility goddess probably regarded as the most powerful deity in the Navaho pantheon is the consort of the Sun god TSOHANOAI and the mother of the war god NAYENEZGANI.” ref, ref

To me, religion involves conspiracy theories of reality.

“A global sample of hunter-gatherers and seven traits describing hunter-gatherer religiosity: animism 100%, belief in an afterlife 79%, shamanism 79%, ancestor worship 45%, high gods 39%, and worship of ancestors 24% or high gods 15% who are active in human affairs.” ref

To me, there seems to be three basic categories of the “Great Spirit” deity term:

  1. “A life force” (no human gender, more animistic related)
  2. “A Supreme Being” (differing or mixed gender, like both male and female, more shamanistic related)
  3. “A defined god” (mostly male gender, like Father, Grandfather, or Old Man, more totemistic paganism related) ref

“The Great Spirit is the concept of a life force, a Supreme Being or god known more specifically as Wakan Tanka in Lakota, Gitche Manitou in Algonquian, and by other, specific names in a number of Native American and First Nations cultures. While the concept is common to a number of indigenous cultures in the United States and Canada, it is not shared by all cultures, or necessarily interpreted in the same way. According to Lakota activist Russell Means, a more semantically accurate translation of Wakan Tanka is the Great Mystery.” ref

“The Great Spirit has at times been conceptualized as an “anthropomorphic celestial deity,” a god of creation, history and eternity, who also takes a personal interest in world affairs and might regularly intervene in the lives of human beings. Numerous individuals are held to have been “speakers” for the Great Spirit; persons believed to serve as an earthly mediator responsible for facilitating communication between humans and the supernatural more generally. Such a speaker is generally considered to have an obligation to preserve the spiritual traditions of their respective lineage. The Great Spirit is looked to by spiritual leaders for guidance by individuals as well as communities at large.” ref

Is the “Staff God” the oldest provable god in the Americas?

“The oldest known depiction of the Staff God was found on some broken gourd fragments in a burial site in the Pativilca River Valley (Norte Chico region) and carbon dated to 2250 BCE or 4,273 years ago. This makes it the oldest image of a god to be found in the Americas.” ref

Who is God Viracocha?

“Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, and Con-Tici (also spelled Kon-Tiki, the source of the name of Thor Heyerdahl’s raft). Viracocha was one of the most important deities in the Inca pantheon and seen as the creator of all things, or the substance from which all things are created, and intimately associated with the sea. Viracocha created the universe, sun, moon, and stars, time (by commanding the sun to move over the sky) and civilization itself. Viracocha was worshipped as god of the sun and of storms. He was represented as wearing the sun for a crown, with thunderbolts in his hands, and tears descending from his eyes as rain. In accord with the Inca cosmogony, Viracocha may be assimilated to Saturn, the “old god”, the maker of time or “deus faber” (god maker), corresponding to the visible planet with the longest revolution around the sun.” ref

“A ceremonial pole is a stake or post utilized or venerated as part of a ceremony or religious ritual. Ceremonial poles may symbolize a variety of concepts in different ceremonies and rituals practiced by a variety of cultures around the world. In many cultures, ceremonial poles represent memorials and grave markers. In The Evolution of the Idea of God, Grant Allen notes that Samoyeds of Siberia, and Damara of South Africa plant stakes at the graves of ancestors. Ceremonial poles may also be raised during celebrations and festivals, as with Gudi Padwa in South Asia and the maypole dance in Europe. In some cultures, they may represent sacred trees or tools wielded by deities. They may also symbolize the axis mundi or world tree. In religious ceremonies, they may be venerated as idols or representations of tutelary deities.” ref

Levant: Asherah (goddess) pole

Mesopotamia: pole/tree symbol of (god) Anu

Central Asia: serge (ritual pole)

China: Huashan festival (flower poles)

Korea: Jangseung (village guardian) and sotdae (pole/pillar with a carved bird on top)

India: ritual poles are features of temples

Myanmar: Kay Htoe Boe poles (sacred Eugenia tree)

Europe: Maypole is a tall wooden pole, Germanic Thor’s Oak and the Irminsul, Norse world tree, known as Yggdrasil

New Zealand Māori: Staff God or atua rakau combine gods with humans,  Rongo food god, especially kūmara (sweet potato), represented by a god stick called whakapakoko atua ref

The Broad Land Is Our Mother, the High Sky Is Our Father

“The traditional religious beliefs of the indigenous population of Lake Baikal of Siberia, the Buryats (Mongolic-Transeurasian language) and the Evenks (Tungusic-Transeurasian language), are characterized by the idea of ​​the inseparable unity of two worlds – the world of people and the world of nature. The most probative fact of the deep ecological consciousness of these people was and still is the cult of worshipping both their territory – the habitat of their people – and the Earth in general. The concept of “Earth” in the Buryat and Tungus languages – “delegey, delekhei daida” – means “vast, plentiful”. This main epithet of the Earth tells about its immensity, boundlessness. An important role in the life of the autochthonous population of Baikal is played by the Earth as a territory of their residence. However, the image of the Earth is inextricably linked with their perception of the world view with the obligatory deification of the Eternal Blue Sky and Earth – the forces giving energy to people.” ref

BURYATS RESPECTFULLY CALLED THE EARTH “MOTHER”, AND THE SKY, IN TURN, “FATHER”.

“There is a very old legend about the epoch when the main deities were only goddesses embodying the Mother. The progenitrix of all the gods was considered Ekhe-Burkhan living in the darkness and primeval chaos. Once she wanted to separate the sky from the earth, and for that purpose, she created a wild duck that dove into the water. Having reached the surface, the duck brought dirt in its beak, and Ekhe-Burkhan used this mud to build Mother Earth – Ulgen (literally meaning “broad”), and then “settled”  plants and animals on it. Some Buryat families called the deity of the earth Etugen, others – Ulgen. Etugen, as a rule, had an appearance of an old woman who lived “inside the earth”. The specifics of her purpose were largely connected with the translation of the name – “to give a birth”.” ref

“Accordingly, she is the embodiment of a fertile source, fertility, the powerful goddess of nature. Therefore, the goddess Etugen patronized not only humans, but gave “a snow-white foal to a white mare, a noisy fledgling crow to a black crow, a sweet bird cherry berry to a green bird cherry tree.” The body of the Mother Earth is the Earth’s surface. All the things that grow and are located on it are the children of Earth. Hence such a careful, even reverent attitude to the integrity of the soil – it was forbidden to dig the ground with sharp objects, pick grass, break branches without any real need… Such a behavior model has been cultivated in Buryat families since childhood. Children were initially told that it was prohibited to upset the Earth, to hurt it. A conspicuous fact is also known: the toes of the Buryat boots were bent upwards – this protected the land from accidental injuries.” ref

“In traditional Siberian Ket (Dené–Yeniseian language) cosmology, natural phenomena and even objects were animate. The sky god Es resided in the uppermost heaven, benign but remote from all but shamans. The sky itself was the abode of Es, the all-powerful male creator deity, who tended to keep aloof from humans on earth. It was assumed that the sky contained rivers and lakes and mountains mirroring those of the earth. The stars and planets were regarded as the roots of heavenly trees. Ket sky burials, on raised wooden platforms, came to be reserved for shamans, while most people were simply buried in the ground.” ref, ref

“The Ket believed that the polar star was anchored to the earth in the precise vicinity of where they camped and roamed by a sort of cosmic umbilical cord. Humans too were believed to have developed their navels from a similar connection with the earth. This endless process of reincarnation continued humanity, linking underworld with earth in a temporal-geographic union symbolized by the person’s navel. The navel and umbilical cord were symbolic of the connection between mortal humans or animals and Mother Earth.” ref, ref

“In the Aztec and other Nahua creation myths, from the void that was the rest of the universe, the first god, Ometeotl, created itself. The nature of Ometeotl, the “God of duality” was both male and female, shared by Ometecuhtli, “Lord of duality,” and Omecihuatl, “Lady of duality”. Ometeotl gave birth to four children, the four Tezcatlipocas, who each preside over one of the four cardinal directions. Over the West presides the White Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, the god of light, mercy, and wind. Over the South presides the Blue Tezcatlipoca, Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. Over the East presides the Red Tezcatlipoca, Xipe Totec, the god of gold, farming, and spring time. And over the North presides the Black Tezcatlipoca, also called simply Tezcatlipoca, the god of judgment, night, deceit, sorcery, and the Earth.” ref 

High God?

“High God, also called Sky God, in anthropology and the history of religion, a type of supreme deity found among many nonliterate peoples of North and South America, Africa, northern Asia, and Australia. The adjective high is primarily a locative term: a High God is conceived as being utterly transcendent, removed from the world that he created. A High God is high in the sense that he lives in or is identified with the sky—hence, the alternative name. Among North American Indians and Central and South Africans, thunder is thought to be the voice of the High God. In Siberia, the sun and moon are considered the High God’s eyes. He is connected with food and heaven among American Indians.” ref  

“The sky often has important religious significance. Many religions, both polytheistic and monotheistic, have deities associated with the sky. The daytime sky deities are typically distinct from the nighttime ones. Such as separating the category of “Sky-god” from that of “Star-god.” Daytime gods and nighttime gods are frequently deities of an “upper world” or “celestial world” opposed to the earth and a “netherworld” (gods of the underworld are sometimes called “chthonic” deities). Any masculine sky god is often also king of the gods, taking the position of patriarch within a pantheon. Such king gods are collectively categorized as “sky father” deities, with a polarity between sky and earth often being expressed by pairing a “sky father” god with an “earth mother” goddess (pairings of a sky mother with an earth father are less frequent).” ref

“A solar deity is a god or goddess who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it, usually by its perceived power and strength. Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms. Many areas/regions had solar deities: from African, the Americans, Asian, European, and Oceania.” ref  

“Heaven is conceived as the symbol and name of the Supreme Being. This is the case among the Chinese (Tien), Mongols (“by the power of the eternal Heaven,” “Heaven has commanded me”), the Sumerians (An), and especially, among the inhabitants of the Afro-Asiatic steppes and the herding peoples. The Indo-European languages employ the terms Devah, Dyaus, Die, Tivar, Zeus, Deus, Diespiter, and Jupiter to designate the creator and lord of all things. Side by side with the active worship of the Supreme God of Heaven there is a tendency to make him a Deus otiosus (as in Africa) and to concentrate on the active worship of other religious phenomena that seem to be closer and to play a more central role in daily life.” ref 

ref

“Matrilineal (in red) and patrilineal (in blue) societies across the world, Ethnographic Atlas sample.” ref  

“A man’s world? Not according to biology or history. For proof, we can look to the many matrilineal societies dotted all over the world. In some regions, these traditions may date back thousands of years.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Native American Legends: Sky Woman

“Tribal affiliation: Iroquois League, Wyandot” ref

“Native names: Ataensic, Ata-en-sic, Ataentsic, Atahensic, Ataensiq, Aataentsic, Athensic, Ataensie, Eataentsic, Eyatahentsik, Iaataientsik, Yatahentshi; Iotsitsisonh, Iotsitsisen, Iottsitison, Iottsitíson, Atsi’tsiaka:ion, Atsi’tsiakaion, Ajinjagaayonh; Iagen’tci, Iagentci, Eagentci, Yekëhtsi, Yagentci; Awenhai, Awenha’i, Awenha:ih; Wa’tewatsitsiané:kare; Aientsik, Aentsik” ref

“Also known as: Grandmother Moon, the Woman who Fell from the Sky
Type: Mother goddess, sky spirit, first woman
Related figures in other tribes: Nokomis (Anishinabe), Our Grandmother (Shawnee)” ref

“Sky Woman is the Iroquois mother goddess, who descended to earth by falling through a hole in the sky. She was a celestial being who was cast out of the heavens either for violating a taboo or through her jealous husband’s treachery; waterbirds carried her down to the sea and set her on the back of a turtle, which became her home (Turtle Island.) Sky Woman is either the grandmother or the mother (depending on the version) of the twin culture heroes Sky-Holder and Flint, sometimes known as Good Spirit and Bad Spirit.” ref

“Myths about Sky Woman vary enormously from community to community. In some Iroquois myths Sky Woman is a minor character who dies in childbirth immediately upon reaching the earth, while in others, she is the central character of the entire creation saga. In some myths Sky Woman is the mother of the twins, but more commonly she is the mother of a daughter, Tekawerahkwa or Breath of the Wind, who in turn gives birth to the twins. In some Iroquois traditions the twins represent good and evil, while in others, neither twin is evil, but Flint represents destruction, death, night, and winter to Sky-Holder’s creation, life, day, and summer. In many versions of the myth Sky Woman favored Flint, usually because Flint has deceived her into thinking Sky-Holder killed Tekawerahkwa, but sometimes because Sky Woman herself disapproved of Sky-Holder’s human creations and their ways. In other versions Sky Woman supported both of her grandchildren equally, declaring that there must be both life and death in the world. Sky Woman is associated with the moon by many Iroquois people. In some traditions, Sky Woman turned into the moon; in others, Sky-Holder turned her body into the sun, moon, and stars after her death; and in still others, it was Sky Woman herself who created the sun, moon, and stars.” ref

“Sky Woman goes by many different names in Iroquois mythology. The name “Sky Woman” itself is a title, not her name– she is a Sky Woman because she is one of the Sky People, Karionake. Her own name is variously given as Ataensic (a Huron name probably meaning “ancient body,”) Iagentci (a Seneca name meaning “ancient woman,”) Iotsitsisonh or Atsi’tsiaka:ion (Mohawk names meaning “fertile flower” and “mature flower,”) Awenhai (a Cayuga and Seneca name also meaning “mature flower,”) and Aentsik (probably an Iroquois borrowing from Huron.) She is sometimes also referred to as Grandmother or Grandmother Moon.” ref

Egyptian: Nut/Nuit, goddess of “Infinite (night) Space and Stars”

Norse: Nótt, goddess of night with a marriage to god Dellingr “shining one” is a day god

ref, ref, ref

“Sol “Sun” is female and Mani “Moon” is male. Norse, Sol, and Mani form a sister and brother pair that ride through the sky on horse-drawn chariots, pursued through the sky by the wolves Skoll (“Mockery”) and Hati (“Hate”).” ref, ref, ref

Sky Goddess

Americas: (Lakota) Wohpe, the spirit of meteors or falling stars (often confused with Fallen Star), also the spirit of beauty, love, wishes, dreams, and prophecy; (Inuit) Ataksak, goddess of the sky; (Iroquoian) AtahensicIroquois sky goddess who fell to Earth at the time of creation; (Uto-Aztecan) Citlalincue, goddess of the Milky Way, Oxomoco, goddess of nighttime; Coyolxauhqui, goddess of the moon; Meztli, goddess of the moon; Tianquiztli, star goddesses (Pleiades), Citlalmina, goddess of female stars; Citlaxonecuilli, goddess of Ursa Major

Australian: Bila (sun), cannibalistic sun goddess

Chinese: Chang’e, moon goddess who lives with the moon rabbit; Xihe (deity), sun goddess; Zhinü, weaver of the clouds and possible dawn goddess 

Celtic: Sulis, goddess of the hot springs at Bath; probably originally the pan-Celtic sun goddess

Egyptian: Hathor, originally a sky goddess; Mehet-Weret, goddess of the sky; Nut/Nuit, goddess of “Infinite (night) Space and Infinite Stars” in Thelema

Finnic: Ilmatar, virgin spirit and goddess of the air

Germanic: Eostre, spring and fertility goddess; originally the Germanic dawn goddess; Sól “Sun” personified, goddess from potential Nordic Bronze Age and Proto-Indo-European roots

Greek: Eos, dawn goddess, Hemera, primordial goddess of day; Hera, goddess of the air, marriage, women, women’s fertility, childbirth, heirs, kings, and empires; Iris, goddess of the rainbow and messenger of Hera; Nyx, primordial goddess of night; Selene, personification of the moon

Hindu: Aditi, celestial mother of the gods; Ratri, goddess of night; Saranyu, goddess of clouds; Ushas, goddess of dawn

Hurrian: Hepit, goddess of the sky

Iranian: Uša, goddess of dawn

India- Meitei/Sanamahism: Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi, queen of heaven; Nongthang Leima, thunder and lightning goddess

Japanese: Amaterasu, goddess of the sun and the universe, ancestor of the emperors of Japan, and the most important deity in Shintoism; Izanami, creator goddess of Japan with her husband; starts off as a sky goddess, but after she dies becomes a death/underworld/chthonic goddess; Marici, Buddhist goddess of the heavens

New Zealand- Māori: Whaitiri Female Personification of Thunder

Norse: Nótt, goddess of night with a marriage to god Dellingr “shining one” a day god.

Pacific Islands: AbeguwoMelanesian sky goddess; Ira, Polynesian sky goddess

Proto-Indo-European: Seul, sun goddess

Uralic Mari: Piambar, daughter of the sky

Uralic Mordvin: Kovava, Mokshan goddess of the moon

Roman: Aurora, dawn goddess; Luna, moon goddess; Nox, Roman version of Nyx, night goddess and mother of Discordia

Slavic: Zorya, goddess of dawn

Semitic: Asherah, sky goddess and consort of El; after the rise of Yahweh, she may have become Yahweh’s consort before being demonized and the Israelite religion going monotheistic

Vietnamese: Mẫu Cửu Trùng Thiên, she is the daughter of Ông Trời, the sister of the Mẫu Thượng Thiên, Mặt Trời, Mặt Trăng and also a goddess who rules the sky; Mẫu Thượng Thiên, she is the daughter of Ông Trời and also one of the rulers of the sky; Pháp Vân, cloud goddess; Thần Mặt Trời, goddess of the sun, daughter of Ông Trời; Thần Mặt Trăng, goddess of the moon, daughter of Ông Trời; Hằng Nga, the goddess who lives on the moon with uncle Cuội and Moon Rabbit ref

Queen of Heaven?

“Queen of Heaven was a title given to a number of ancient sky goddesses worshipped throughout the ancient Mediterranean and the ancient Near East. Goddesses known to have been referred to by the title include Inanna, Anat, Isis, Nuit/Nut, Astarte, and possibly  Astarte/Asherah (by the prophet Jeremiah). In Greco-Roman times, Hera and Juno bore this title. The forms and content of worship varied. In China: Doumu, as the queen of heaven and mother of all the stars in Chinese religion and Taoism. Mazu, also commonly known as the “Empress of Heaven”. Queen Mother of the West, as the queen of heaven and mistress of all the goddess in Chinese religion and mythology.” ref

Solar deity, Solar myths, Solar vessels, and Sun chariots

“Solar deities are often thought of as male (and lunar deities as being female) but the opposite has also been the case. A solar deity or sun deity is a deity who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it. Such deities are usually associated with power and strength. Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms. Predynasty Egyptian beliefs attribute Atum as the Sun god and Horus as god of the sky and Sun. As the Old Kingdom theocracy gained influence, early beliefs were incorporated into the expanding popularity of Ra and the OsirisHorus mythology. Atum became Ra-Atum, the rays of the setting Sun. Osiris became the divine heir to Atum’s power on Earth and passed his divine authority to his son, Horus.” ref 

“Other early Egyptian myths imply that the Sun is incorporated with the lioness Sekhmet at night and is reflected in her eyes; or that the Sun is found within the cow Hathor during the night and reborn each morning as her son (bull). Mesopotamian Shamash played an important role during the Bronze Age, and “my Sun” was eventually used to address royalty. Similarly, South American cultures have a tradition of Sun worship as with the Incan Inti. In Germanic mythology, the solar deity is Sol; in VedicSurya; and in Greek, Helios (occasionally referred to as Titan) and (sometimes) as Apollo. In Proto-Indo-European mythology the sun appears to be a multilayered figure manifested as a goddess but also perceived as the eye of the sky father Dyeus.” ref

Solar myths

“Solar myth (Latin: solaris «solar») — mythologization of the Sun and its impact on earthly life; usually closely associated with lunar myths.” ref

“Contrary to the assumptions of ethnographers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, in the “primitive”, archaic religious and mythological systems, a particularly revered “cult of the Sun” is not observed. In them, the Sun is perceived as a minor character or even an inanimate object. Among the archaic solar myths are myths about the emergence of the Sun and the destruction of superfluous suns, about the disappearance and return of the Sun, common among African, Siberian, and Australian peoples. As Vyacheslav Ivanov suggests, twin myths about the Sun and the Moon and the motif of the “heavenly wedding” also seem archaic. In the most ancient versions (in particular, among the Siberian peoples), the Sun in this pair represents a woman, and the Moon represents a man.” ref

“According to the ethnographer Arthur Hocart, the cult of the Sun comes to the fore in cultures where the role of the “sacred king” is increasing. In Sumerian-Akkadian mythology, the sun god Shamash is still inferior in importance to the moon god, but is already becoming one of the most revered deities. Solar cults play an important role in ancient Egyptian religion. Among the Egyptian solar deities are Ra, Horus, Amun, Khepri – the scarab god, rolling the Sun across the sky. In the 14th century BCE or around 3,400 years ago Pharaoh Akhenaten attempts a radical religious reform and introduces a single cult of the Aten in Egypt (originally the personification of the solar disk).” ref

“Solar cults occupy an important place in Indo-European mythology, where they are associated with the cult of the horse and the image of the divine twins (Ashwins, Dioscuri). According to Indo-European ideas, the Sun “travels” (or “carries”) across the sky on a horse-drawn cart, passing through the sky in a day. Examples of Indo-European solar deities are the ancient Indian Surya, the Greek Apollo, and Helios, the Roman Sol. Solar origin has one of the main deities of late Zoroastrianism – Mitra.” ref

“Various researchers associate the Slavic gods Dazhbog, Khors with the cult of the Sun; the lack of information on Slavic pre-Christian mythology does not allow us to unambiguously confirm or refute these constructions.” ref

“Developed solar cults existed in South and Mesoamerica (Huitzilopochtli, Inti).” ref

“The supreme deity in the Japanese pantheon of Shinto is the sun goddess Amaterasu.” ref

“Azerbaijani historian Aydin Mammadov writes that in the pre-Islamic spiritual culture of the Azerbaijani people, beliefs and rituals associated with the cult of the Sun occupy a special place. The cult of the Sun arose in ancient times as a result of the natural human need for sunlight and warmth and is firmly rooted in the minds of people, in their mythologized thinking. In Azerbaijan, the cult of the daylight experienced its heyday in the Bronze Age. According to many researchers, dolmens, and cromlechs known in Azerbaijan are also associated with the cult of the Sun.” ref

“Ethnographers of the mythological school of the 18-19th centuries gave exaggerated significance to solar myths, declaring various cult heroes and mythological characters as personifications of the Sun, who in fact have no real connections with it.” ref

To me, sky-father religious beliefs seem to relate to Sky God beliefs across the world and I think the Bible god is a kind of sky-father related belief.

“Sky Father” of the Vedic Dyaus Pita, is the Proto-Indo-European deity *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr, same as Greek Zeûs, Roman Jupiter, and Germanic Týr, Tir or Tiwaz. Other Sky Fathers: Egyptian Horus, Turkic, Mongolic Tengri, Nordic Dagr, Native American Bochica, Sino-Tibetan shangdi, etc. Rome, the sky father,  was Jupiter (Zeus in Ancient Greece), often depicted by birds* “In comparative mythology, sky father is a term for a recurring concept in polytheistic religions of a sky god who is addressed as a “father.” ref

Ranginui – the sky father

“New Zealand’s Māori mythology personified the heavens as a sky father, naming him variously Rangi (heavens), Ranginui (great heavens), Rangiroa (expansive heavens), or Te Ranginui-e-tū-nei (the great-standing heavens).” ref 

“The Māori understanding of the development of the universe was expressed in genealogical form. These genealogies appear in many versions, in which several symbolic themes constantly recur. The cosmogonic genealogies are usually brought to a close by the two names Rangi and Papa (sky father and earth mother). The marriage of this celestial pair produced the gods and, in due course, all the living things of the earth. The main corpus of Māori mythology are represented as unfolding in three story complexes or cycles, which include the world’s origin, the stories of the demigod Māui, and the Tāwhaki myths.” ref

My art and when as well as who may have brought in the new elitism and compulsory authority to the Americas.

“For the Tlingit (branch of the Na-Dené language family), hereditary slavery was practiced extensively until it was outlawed by the United States. Wealth and economic power are important indicators of rank. Scientists suggest that the main ancestor of the Ainu and of the Tlingit can be traced back to Paleolithic groups in Southern Siberia.” ref

Gene flow across linguistic boundaries in Native North American populations

“Geneticists and anthropologists often expect that human language groups and gene pools will share a common structure. It is noted that both language and genes are passed from parents to children, mating tends to be endogamous with respect to linguistic groups, and splits in linguistic communities usually occur with splits in breeding populations. Cavalli-Sforza et al. have reported that genetic trees of major geographic populations correlate well with language families. They argue that a process consisting of population fissions, expansion into new territories, and isolation between ancestral and descendant groups will produced a tree-like structure common to both genes and languages. Linguists agree that population fissions and range expansions play an important role in the generation of linguistic diversity.” ref

“The potential correspondence between gene pools and language groups in Native North American populations is particularly interesting for several reasons. Early investigations of the correspondence between genetic groups and linguistic groups in Native North Americans produced equivocal results. On the one hand, average genetic distances between populations in different language families were greater than average genetic distances between populations within language families. On the other hand, genetic distances were not significantly correlated with glottochronological distances. In the three language families, the average nucleotide diversity within populations is low in Eskimo-Aleut populations and high in Amerind populations. However, nucleotide diversity varies considerably among the populations classified as Na-Dene-speaking. The Alaskan Athabascan and Haida populations, who reside in the North, have low nucleotide diversities, in the range of nucleotide diversities in the Eskimo-Aleut-speaking populations. The Navajo and Apache, who reside in the Southwest, have high nucleotide diversities, in the range of nucleotide diversities in populations classified as Amerind speaking.” ref 

“Several patterns that depart from the tree structure are apparent upon close examination. For example, the GLC expected distances consistently overestimate the realized genetic distances for several populations, including the Navajo, Aleut, and Siberian Yupik populations. This relationship means that these populations are genetically similar to populations with distantly related languages. Similarly, the GLC tree consistently underestimates the genetic distance between three Eskimo populations (Central Yupik, Canadian Inuit, and Inupaiq) and all other populations. First, none of Greenberg’s major language groups (Eskimo-Aleut, Na-Dene, or Amerind) forms a unique cluster. The most exclusive cluster that contains all Eskimo-Aleut populations (defined by branch a) also includes all four Na-Dene-speaking populations and the Amerind-speaking Cheyenne, Bella Coola, and Nuu Chah Nulth populations.” ref

“The most exclusive cluster with all Na-Dene-speaking populations (defined by branch b) also includes six Eskimo-Aleut-speaking populations (Siberian Yupik, Greenland Inuit, Central Yupik, Canadian Inuit, and Inupiaq) and the Amerind-speaking Bella Coola. The most exclusive cluster with all Amerind-speaking populations (defined by branch c) includes the Eskimo-Aleut-speaking Aleuts and the Na-Dene-speaking Navajo. Second, there is a strong North-South geographic pattern to the clustering pattern. An Arctic-Pacific Northwest cluster that includes all Aleut-Eskimo populations, all Na-Dene populations, and the Amerind Nuu Chah Nulth and Bella Coola populations originates on one side of branch a, whereas a more Southern group includes the Pima, Cherokee, Sioux, and Chippewa Amerind-speaking population forms to the other side of branch a. The Southwestern Athabascan-speaking populations, Navajo and Apache, defy the geographic groupings, but this result is consistent with the archaeological record.” ref

“Anthropologists agree that circa anno Domini 1400 the ancestors of Navajos and Apaches migrated from the Mackenzie Basin of Canada to the Southwest region, where they came into contact with Amerind-speaking populations who had been living there for thousands of years. The occurrence of haplogroup A differs markedly between the far Northern and the Southwestern samples. With only few exceptions, mtDNA lineages observed in the northern Na-Dene classified populations (Haida and Alaskan Athabascans) belong to haplogroup A. Haplogroup A is also common in Eskimos and Aleuts. Outside of the far North, the only samples in which haplogroup A appears commonly are the Southwestern Athabascan-speaking populations (Navajo and Apache). mtDNA sequences belonging to haplogroups B and C are frequent primarily in the Amerind-classified populations, including the Bella Coola, and Nuu Chah Nulth populations on the Northwest Coast. The Navajo and Apache are the only Na-Dene-classified populations with substantial frequencies of B- and C-group haplotypes, although haplogroup C is observed in the Haida and Alaskan Athabascan samples.” ref 

I think god beliefs (great spirit/shy father god) came into the Americas from North Asia from 7,000 to 5,000 years ago. I think it likely relates to the Na-Dene languages migrations as all of the Na-Dene languages have “great spirit” beliefs and some have shy father god/creator beliefs as well.

I think Na-Dene speakers brought into the Americas a kind/several kinds of Shamanism-Paganism with Totemism and Animism. Especially a daytime blue sky-god/sun-god but also an earth/moon goddess and bird mythology beliefs. Similar to the Hemudu culture (5500 – 3300 BCE or around 7,500 to 5,300 years ago) from China.

Hemudu’s inhabitants worshiped a sun spirit as well as a fertility spirit. They also enacted shamanistic rituals to the sun and believed in bird totems. A belief in an afterlife and ghosts is thought to have been widespread as well. People were buried with their heads facing east or northeast and most had no burial objects. Infants were buried in urn-casket style burials, while children and adults received earth level burials. They did not have a definite communal burial ground, for the most part, but a clan communal burial ground has been found from the later period. Two groups in separate parts of this burial ground are thought to be two intermarrying clans. There were noticeably more burial goods in this communal burial ground.” ref

“The Great Spirit is the concept of a life force, a supreme being or god, present in many, but not all, indigenous cultures in Canada and the United States. Interpretations of the Great Spirit also vary between cultures. It is known as Wakan Tanka in Lakota, Gitche Manitou in Algonquian, and by other, specific names in a number of First Nations and Native American cultures. According to Lakota activist Russell Means, a more semantically accurate translation of Wakan Tanka is the Great Mystery.” ref

“The Great Spirit has at times been conceptualized as an “anthropomorphic celestial deity,” a god of creation, history, and eternity, who also takes a personal interest in world affairs and might regularly intervene in the lives of human beings. Numerous individuals are held to have been “speakers” for the Great Spirit; persons believed to serve as an earthly mediator responsible for facilitating communication between humans and the supernatural more generally. Such a speaker is generally considered to have an obligation to preserve the spiritual traditions of their respective lineage. The Great Spirit is looked to by spiritual leaders for guidance by individuals as well as communities at large.” ref

“While belief in an entity or entities known as the Great Spirit exists across numerous indigenous American peoples, individual tribes often demonstrate varying degrees of cultural divergence. As such, a variety of stories, parables, fables, and messages exhibiting different, sometimes contradictory themes and plot elements have been attributed to the same figure by otherwise disparate cultures. Wakan Tanka (Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka) can be interpreted as the power or the sacredness that resides in everything, resembling some animistic and pantheistic beliefs. This term describes every creature and object as wakan (“holy”) or having aspects that are wakan; tanka corresponds to “great” or “large.” ref

“The Lakota used Wakan Tanka to refer to an organization or group of sacred entities whose ways were considered mysterious and beyond human understanding. It was the elaboration on these beliefs that prompted scholarly debate suggesting that the term “Great Mystery” could be a more accurate translation of such a concept than “Great Spirit”. Activist Russell Means also promoted the translation “Great Mystery” and the view that Lakota spirituality is not originally monotheistic.” ref

“Chief Luther Standing Bear (1868–1939) of the Lakota Nation put it thus:

From Wakan Tanka, the Great Spirit, there came a great unifying life force that flowed in and through all things – the flowers of the plains, blowing winds, rocks, trees, birds, animals – and was the same force that had been breathed into the first man. Thus all things were kindred, and were brought together by the same Great Mystery.” ref

Manitou, akin to the Haudenosaunee concept of orenda, is perceived as the spiritual and fundamental life force by Algonquian peoples. It is believed by practitioners to be omnipresent; manifesting in all things, including organisms, the environment, and events both human-induced and otherwise. Manifestations of Manitou are also believed to be dualistic, and such contrasting instances are known as aashaa monetoo (“good spirit”) and otshee monetoo (“bad spirit”) respectively. According to legend, when the world was created, the Great Spirit, Aasha Monetoo, gave the land to the indigenous peoples, the Shawnee in particular.” ref

“The Anishinaabe culture, descended from the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Cree, inherited the Great Spirit tradition of their predecessors. Gitche Manitou (also transliterated as Gichi-manidoo) is an Anishinaabe language word typically interpreted as Great Spirit, the Creator of all things and the Giver of Life, and is sometimes translated as the “Great Mystery”. Historically, Anishinaabe people believed in a variety of spirits, whose images were placed near doorways for protection. According to Anishinaabe tradition, Michilimackinac, later named by European settlers as Mackinac Island, in Michigan, was the home of Gitche Manitou, and some Anishinaabeg tribes would make pilgrimages there for rituals devoted to the spirit.” ref

“Other Anishinaabe names for such a figure, incorporated through the process of syncretism, are Gizhe-manidoo (“venerable Manidoo“), Wenizhishid-manidoo (“Fair Manidoo“) and Gichi-ojichaag (“Great Spirit”). While Gichi-manidoo and Gichi-ojichaag both mean “Great Spirit”, Gichi-manidoo carried the idea of the greater spiritual connectivity while Gichi-ojichaag carried the idea of individual soul’s connection to the Gichi-manidoo. Consequently, Christian missionaries often used the term Gichi-ojichaag to refer to the Christian idea of a Holy SpiritThe contemporary belief in the great spirit is generally associated with the Native American Church. The doctrine regarding the great spirit within this modern tradition is quite varied and generally takes on Christian ideas of a monotheistic God alongside animistic conceptions. The number of adherents to these contemporary beliefs in the great spirit are unknown, but it is likely they number over a quarter million people.” ref

“Early European explorers describe individual Native American tribes and even small bands as each having their own religious practices. Theology may be monotheisticpolytheistichenotheisticanimisticshamanisticpantheistic or any combination thereof, among others. Traditional beliefs are usually passed down in the forms of oral histories, stories, allegories, and principles.” ref

“The sun dance is a religious ceremony practiced by a number of Native American and First Nations peoples, primarily those of the Plains Nations. Each tribe that has some type of sun dance ceremony that has their own distinct practices and ceremonial protocols. In many cases, the ceremony is held in private and is not open to the public. Most details of the ceremony are kept from public knowledge out of great respect for, and the desire for protection of, the traditional ways. Many of the ceremonies have features in common, such as specific dances and songs passed down through many generations, the use of traditional drums, the sacred pipe, praying, fasting and, in some cases, the piercing of the skin. In Canada, the Plains Cree call this ceremony the Thirst Dance; the Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwe) call it the Rain Dance; and the Blackfoot (Siksika, Kainai, and Piikani) call it the Medicine Dance. It is also practiced by the Canadian Dakota and Nakoda, and the Dene.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

3. Algonquian languages/From Algic languages, “Algonquian languages include: ArapahoanBlackfootCheyenneCreeMontagnaisNaskapiEastern AlgonquianMenomineeMeskwaki-Sauk-KickapooMiami-IllinoisOjibwePotawatomi, and ShawneeThe Algonquian languages are a family of Indigenous languages of the Americas, and most of the languages in the Algic language family are included in the group. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically similar Algonquin dialect of the Indigenous Ojibwe language (Chippewa), which is a senior member of the Algonquian language family. Speakers of Algonquian languages stretch from the east coast of North America to the Rocky Mountains. The proto-language from which all of the languages of the family descend, Proto-Algonquian, was spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago. The essence of Proto-Algonquian originated with people to the west who then moved east. There is no scholarly consensus about where this language was spoken.” ref

“The Great Spirit is known by many names in different Indigenous cultures, including:

  • Gitche Manitou: Used in several Algonquian languages, including by many Native Americans and First Nations
  • Wakan Tanka: Used by the Sioux

Gichi-manidoo: An Apache word that conveys the idea of a greater spiritual connection

Gichi-ojichaag: An Apache word that conveys the idea of an individual soul’s connection to the Gichi-manidoo

Tam Apo: Used by the Shoshone, which translates to “Our Father”

The Great Spirit is a term for a Supreme Being, God, or spiritual force. In Indigenous cultures, the Great Spirit is often seen as a non-anthropomorphic deity that is both personal and active. The Great Spirit is also often perceived as both male and female, or as a combination of Father Sky and Mother Earth.” – Google AI

“The Shoshone call their creator god “Tam Apo,” which translates as “Our Father.” Some tribes represent the Supreme Being as an animal, most often a wolf, having human thought and speech. Gichi-manidoo/ Gichi-ojichaag – Apache. Wakan Tanka, “Great Spirit” or “Great Mystery” ref, ref 

Hawëni:yo’ (Great spirit: He Who Governs or The Ruler)

“The Earth was a thought in the mind of Hawëni:yo’ (transl. He Who Governs or The Ruler), the ruler of a great island floating above the clouds. The floating island is a place of calm where all needs are provided, and there is no pain or death. The island’s inhabitants hold council under a great apple tree. Hawëni:yo’ says, “Let us make a new place where another people can grow. Under our council tree is a great sea of clouds which calls out for light.” He orders the uprooting of the council tree and he looks through the hole, down into the depths. He tells Awëöha’i’ (Mohawk:Atsi’tsaká:ion) (transl. Sky Woman) to look down. Hearing the voice of the sea below calling, Hawëni:yo’ tells Awëöha’i’, who was pregnant, to bring it life. He wraps her in light and drops her down through the hole.” ref

“All the birds and animals who live in the great cloud sea are panicked. The Duck asks, “Where can it rest?” The Beaver replies, “Only the oeh-dah (transl. earth) from the bottom of our great sea can hold it. I will get some.” The Beaver dives down but never returns. Then, the Duck tries, but its dead body floats to the surface. Many of the other birds and animals try and fail. Finally, the Muskrat returns with some Oeh-dah in his paws. He says, “It’s heavy. Who can support it?” The Turtle volunteers, and the oeh-dah is placed on top of his shell. The birds fly up and carry Awëöha’i’ on their wings to the Turtle’s back. This is how Hah-nu-nah, the Turtle, came to be the earth bearer. When he moves, the sea gets rough, and the earth shakes.” ref

“Hahgwehdiyu (also called Ha-Wen-NeyuRawenniyoHawenniyo or Sapling) is the Iroquois god of goodness and light, as well as a creator god. He and his twin brother Hahgwehdaetgah, the god of evil, were children of Atahensic the Sky Woman (or Tekawerahkwa the Earth Woman in some versions), whom Hahgwehdaetgah killed in childbirth. Hahgwehdiyu created the world from his own body and that of his mother’s. His outstretched palm became the sky, his mother’s head the sun, and her breasts became the moon and stars. He made her body the earth, into which he planted a seed, which grew into the maize plant.” ref

“The Oeh-dah (Earth) was a thought in the mind of the ruler on a great island floating above the clouds. This ruler was called by various names, among them Ha-wen-ni-yu, meaning He who governs or The Ruler. The island is a place of calm where all needs are provided, and there is no pain or death. On this island grew a great apple tree where the inhabitants held council. The Ruler said “let us make a new place where another people can grow. Under our council tree is a great sea of clouds which calls out for light.” He ordered the council tree to be uprooted, and he looked down into the depths. He had AtahensicSky Woman, look down. He heard the voice of the sea calling; he told Atahensic, who was pregnant, to bring it life. He wrapped her in light and dropped her down through the hole.” ref

“She was carried down to the waters by a flock of birds and placed on the back of a turtle. The water animals worked to bring some soil to the surface, the soil was placed on the back of the turtle and grew to become the island, Oeh-dah. Atahensic heard two voices under her heart and knew her time had come. One voice was calm and quiet, but the other was loud and angry. These were the Do-yo-da-noThe Twins. The good twin, Hahgwehdiyu or Teharonhiakwako (transl. Sapling), was born normally; the evil twinHahgwehdaetgah or Sawiskera (transl. Flint), forced his way out from under his mother’s arm, killing her during childbirth.” ref

“After the death of Sky Woman, the island was shrouded in gloom. Hahgwehdiyu shaped the sky and created the sun from his mother’s face, saying, “you shall rule here where your face will shine forever.” Hahgwehdaetgah, however, set the great darkness in the west to drive down the sun. Hahgwehdiyu then took the Moon and Stars from his mother’s breast, and placed them, his sisters, to guard the night sky. He gave his mother’s body to the earth, the Great Mother from whom all life came. There is another version of the myth of Hahgwehdiyu in which he and Hahgwehdaetgah are Atahensic’s grandsons instead. According to this variant, Atahensic had a daughter named Tekawerahkwa (transl.” ref

“Earth Woman), whom the west wind impregnated with Hahgwehdiyu and Hahgwehdaetgah. As Tekawerahkwa died by childbirth, either she wished for her body to sustain the people or Atahensic sowed on her grave the seeds she had brought when she fell to Earth, but never planted before. Out of Tekawerahkwa’s remains grew various plants: the sister spirits of the corn, beans, and squash came from her breasts, hands, and navel respectively; sunflowers from her legs; strawberries from her heart; tobacco from her head; and purple potatoes or sunchokes from her feet.” ref

“Hahgwehdiyu, corresponding to the Huron spirit Iosheka, created the first people. He healed disease, defeated demons, and gave many of the Iroquois magical and ceremonial rituals. Another of his gifts was tobacco, which has been used as a central part of the Iroquois religion. Hahgwehdiyu is aided by a number of assistant or subordinate spirits.” ref

Manitou, akin to the Haudenosaunee concept of orenda, is perceived as the spiritual and fundamental life force by Algonquian peoples. It is believed by practitioners to be omnipresent; manifesting in all things, including organisms, the environment, and events both human-induced and otherwise. Manifestations of Manitou are also believed to be dualistic, and such contrasting instances are known as aashaa monetoo (“good spirit”) and otshee monetoo (“bad spirit”) respectively. According to legend, when the world was created, the Great Spirit, Aasha Monetoo, gave the land to the indigenous peoples, the Shawnee in particular.” ref

“The Anishinaabe culture, descended from the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Cree, inherited the Great Spirit tradition of their predecessors. Gitche Manitou (also transliterated as Gichi-manidoo) is an Anishinaabe language word typically interpreted as Great Spirit, the Creator of all things and the Giver of Life, and is sometimes translated as the “Great Mystery”. Historically, Anishinaabe people believed in a variety of spirits, whose images were placed near doorways for protection. According to Anishinaabe tradition, Michilimackinac, later named by European settlers as Mackinac Island, in Michigan, was the home of Gitche Manitou, and some Anishinaabeg tribes would make pilgrimages there for rituals devoted to the spirit.” ref

“Other Anishinaabe names for such a figure, incorporated through the process of syncretism, are Gizhe-manidoo (“venerable Manidoo“), Wenizhishid-manidoo (“Fair Manidoo“) and Gichi-ojichaag (“Great Spirit”). While Gichi-manidoo and Gichi-ojichaag both mean “Great Spirit”, Gichi-manidoo carried the idea of the greater spiritual connectivity while Gichi-ojichaag carried the idea of individual soul’s connection to the Gichi-manidoo. Consequently, Christian missionaries often used the term Gichi-ojichaag to refer to the Christian idea of a Holy Spirit.” ref

Native American Church

“The contemporary belief in the great spirit is generally associated with the Native American Church. The doctrine regarding the great spirit within this modern tradition is quite varied and generally takes on Christian ideas of a monotheistic God alongside animistic conceptions. The number of adherents to these contemporary beliefs in the great spirit are unknown, but it is likely they number over a quarter million people.” ref 

Orenda

“The name Orenda derives its origins from the Native American Iroquois culture and holds great significance in their belief system. In Iroquois mythology, Orenda refers to the power or force that exists within all living things. It is often associated with the concept of the Great Spirit, representing a supernatural entity possessing magical powers. This name carries immense spiritual importance for the Iroquois people, highlighting their profound respect for the inherent power found within nature and the interconnectedness of all living beings. Throughout history, Orenda has played a prominent role in the spirituality and folklore of the Iroquois people. Tales of individuals possessing Orenda are abundant, with these individuals seen as having the ability to communicate directly with the Great Spirit and wield supernatural powers.” ref 

“Orenda /ˈɔːrɛndə/ is the Haudenosaunee/Iroquois name for a certain spiritual energy inherent in people and their environment. It is an “extraordinary invisible power believed by the Iroquois Native Americans to pervade in varying degrees in all animate and inanimate natural objects as a transmissible spiritual energy capable of being exerted according to the will of its possessor.” Orenda is a collective power of nature’s energies through the living energy of all natural objects: animate and inanimate.” ref

“Anthropologist J. N. B. Hewitt notes intrinsic similarities between the Haudenosaunee concept of Orenda and that of the Siouxan wakan or mahopa; the Algonquin manitowi, and the pokunt of the Shoshone. Across the Iroquois tribes, the concept was referred to variously as orenna or karenna by the MohawkCayuga, and Oneidaurente by the Tuscarora, and iarenda or orenda by the Huron. Orenda is present in nature: storms are said to possess orenda. A strong connection exists between prayers and songs and orenda. Through song, a bird, a shaman, or a rabbit puts forth orenda.” ref

My rough speculations from the evidence:

In the dark circle, comes from Asia, prior to 5,000 years ago.

In red, around 5,000 years ago or under.

In purple, means after 3,500 years ago.

To me, spider mythology ideas leave the Pacific Northwest and go in several directions, moved by different Indigenous groups. Grandmother-Spider/Spider-Woman and Grandfather-Spider/Spider-Man.

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

“The earth-diver is a common character in various traditional creation myths. In these stories, a supreme being usually sends an animal (most often a type of bird, but also crustaceans, insects, and fish in some narratives) into the primal waters to find bits of sand or mud with which to build habitable land.” ref 

Axis Mundi Mythology– cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, center of the world, mound/mountain of creation, or “World/Cosmic tree,” or “Eagle and Serpent tree.” ref, ref

“The World Turtle, also called the Cosmic Turtle or the World-bearing Turtle, is a mytheme of a giant turtle (or tortoise) supporting or containing the world. It occurs in Hindu mythology, Chinese mythology, and the mythologies of some of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.” ref

“Chucalissa, Mississippian culture Mounds in Memphis, art shows all the elements involved in the Path of Souls death journey, a widely held belief system among the mound builders of America.” ref

“Interpretation of southeastern Native cosmology, showing the tripartite division of the world. The axis mundi is depicted as a tree or post connecting the fire symbol of this world, the sun symbol of the upper world, and the ‘swastika’ symbol of the lower world.” ref

“It should be remembered that the Mississippian culture that built Cahokia may have considered a cedar tree or a striped cedar pole to be a symbol of the Axis Mundi (also called the cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, the center of the world, or world tree – has been greatly extended to refer to any mythological concept representing “the connection between Heaven and Earth” or the “higher and lower realms), the pillar connecting the above, middle, & below worlds, & around which the cosmos turns An American Yggdrasil (Norse tree of life). Some work has gone into reconstructing the woodhenge, and it is one of the sites around Cahokia that you can visit today. (The Solar Calendar of Woodhenge in Cahokia | Native America: Cities of the Sky).” – Vulpine Outlaw @Rad_Sherwoodism

“Items adduced as examples of the axis mundi by comparative mythologists include plants (notably a tree but also other types of plants such as a vine or stalk), a mountain, a column of smoke or fire, or a product of human manufacture (such as a staff, a tower, a ladder, a staircase, a maypole, a cross, a steeple, a rope, a totem pole, a pillar, a spire). Its proximity to heaven may carry implications that are chiefly religious (pagodatemple mountminaretchurch) or secular (obelisklighthouserocketskyscraper). The image appears in religious and secular contexts. The axis mundi symbol may be found in cultures utilizing shamanic practices or animist belief systems, in major world religions, and in technologically advanced “urban centers.” ref

Do we know what the symbols represent?

 “Yes. It’s a bit more than I’d want to post on TwiX right now. It’s showing the 3-part universe, an upper, lower, and middle world, & the Milky Way is shown as well as Orion the Hand Constellation, Scorpius the ruler of the underworld, and Cygnus, the Judge. Also the main powers of the upper & lower worlds.” – Gregory L Little, Ed.D. @DrGregLittle2

Gregory L Little, Ed.D. BA/MS Psychology, Ed.D. Counseling/Ed. Psych Author since ’84 (70+ books/workbooks). Mound Builder Society: Be Kind; Respect Everything; Honor the Ancient Ones.

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref, ref, ref

World Turtle

Mikinaak (Ojibway or Chippewa: snapping turtle)-(whose Turtle Clan and its totem are called Mikinaak)

“Snapping turtle is carrying the “earth” on its back.” ref, ref, ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref

Turtle Island is a name for Earth or North America, used by some American Indigenous peoples, as well as by some Indigenous rights activists. The name is based on a creation myth common to several indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of North America.” ref

Lenape mythology is the mythology of the Lenape people, an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern WoodlandsThe Lenape story of the “Great Turtle” was first recorded by Europeans between 1678 and 1680 by Jasper Danckaerts. The story is shared by other Northeastern Woodlands tribes, notably the Iroquois peoples. The Lenape believe that before creation there was nothing, an empty dark space. However, in this emptiness, there existed a spirit of their creator, Kishelamàkânk. Eventually in that emptiness, he fell asleep. While he slept, he dreamt of the world as we know it today, the Earth with mountains, forests, and animals. He also dreamt up man, and he saw the ceremonies man would perform. Then he woke up from his dream to the same nothingness he was living in before. Kishelamàkânk then started to create the Earth as he had dreamt it.” ref

“First, he created helper spirits, the Grandfathers of the North, East, and West, and the Grandmother of the South. Together, they created the Earth just as Kishelamàkânk had dreamt it. One of their final acts was creating a special tree. From the roots of this tree came the first man, and when the tree bent down and kissed the ground, woman sprang from it. All the animals and humans did their jobs on the Earth, until eventually a problem arose. There was a tooth of a giant bear that could give the owner magical powers, and the humans started to fight over it.” ref

“Eventually, the wars got so bad that people moved away, and made new tribes and new languages. Kishelamàkânk saw this fighting and decided to send down a spirit, Nanapush, to bring everyone back together. He went on top of a mountain and started the first Sacred Fire, which gave off a smoke that caused all the people of the world to come investigate what it was. When they all came, Nanapush created a pipe with a sumac branch and a soapstone bowl, and the creator gave him Tobacco to smoke with. Nanapush then told the people that whenever they fought with each other, to sit down and smoke tobacco in the pipe, and they would make decisions that were good for everyone.” ref

“The same bear tooth later caused a fight between two evil spirits, a giant toad and an evil snake. The toad was in charge of all the waters, and amidst the fighting he ate the tooth and the snake. The snake then proceeded to bite his side, releasing a great flood upon the Earth. Nanapush saw this destruction and began climbing a mountain to avoid the flood, all the while grabbing animals that he saw and sticking them in his sash. At the top of the mountain there was a cedar tree that he started to climb, and as he climbed he broke off limbs of the tree. When he got to the top of the tree, he pulled out his bow, played it and sang a song that made the waters stop. Nanapush then asked which animal he could put the rest of the animals on top of in the water. The turtle volunteered saying he’d float and they could all stay on him, and that’s why they call the land Turtle Island.” ref

“Nanapush then decided the turtle needed to be bigger for everyone to live on, so he asked the animals if one of them would dive down into the water to get some of the old Earth. The beaver tried first, but came up dead and Nanapush had to revive him. The loon tried second, but its attempt ended with the same fate. Lastly, the muskrat tried. He stayed down the longest, and came up dead as well, but he had some Earth on his nose that Nanapush put on the Turtles back. Because of his accomplishment, Nanapush told the muskrat he was blessed and his kind would always thrive in the land.” ref

“Nanapush then took out his bow and again sang, and the turtle started to grow. It kept growing, and Nanapush sent out animals to try to get to the edge to see how long it had grown. First, he sent the bear, and the bear returned in two days saying he had reached the end. Next, he sent out the deer, who came back in two weeks saying he had reached the end. Finally, he sent the wolf, and the wolf never returned because the land had gotten so big. Lenape tradition said wolves howl because call for their ancestor to come back home.” ref

ref

World Turtle (Mound of Creation)

“The World Turtle, also called the Cosmic Turtle or the World-bearing Turtle, is a mytheme of a giant turtle (or tortoise) supporting or containing the world. It occurs in Hindu mythology, Chinese mythology, and the mythologies of some of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.” ref

But is Atlantis real?

No. Atlantis (an allegory: “face story” interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning) can’t be found any more than one can locate the Jolly Green Giant that is said to watch over frozen vegetables. Lol

ref

May Reason Set You Free

There are a lot of truly great things said by anarchists in history, and also some deeply vile things, too, from not supporting Women’s rights to Anti-Semitism. There are those who also reject those supporting women’s rights as well as fight anti-Semitism. This is why I push reason as my only master, not anarchist thinking, though anarchism, to me, should see all humans everywhere as equal in dignity and rights.

We—Cory and Damien—are following the greatness that can be found in anarchist thinking.

As an Anarchist Educator, Damien strives to teach the plain truth. Damien does not support violence as my method to change. Rather, I choose education that builds Enlightenment and Empowerment. I champion Dignity and Equality. We rise by helping each other. What is the price of a tear? What is the cost of a smile? How can we see clearly when others pay the cost of our indifference and fear? We should help people in need. Why is that so hard for some people? Rich Ghouls must End. Damien wants “billionaires” to stop being a thing. Tax then into equality. To Damien, there is no debate, Capitalism is unethical. Moreover, as an Anarchist Educator, Damien knows violence is not the way to inspire lasting positive change. But we are not limited to violence, we have education, one of the most lasting and powerful ways to improve the world. We empower the world by championing Truth and its supporters.

Anarchism and Education

“Various alternatives to education and their problems have been proposed by anarchists which have gone from alternative education systems and environments, self-education, advocacy of youth and children rights, and freethought activism.” ref

“Historical accounts of anarchist educational experiments to explore how their pedagogical practices, organization, and content constituted a radical alternative to mainstream forms of educational provision in different historical periods.” ref

“The Ferrer school was an early 20th century libertarian school inspired by the anarchist pedagogy of Francisco Ferrer. He was a proponent of rationalist, secular education that emphasized reason, dignity, self-reliance, and scientific observation. The Ferrer movement’s philosophy had two distinct tendencies: non-didactic freedom from dogma and the more didactic fostering of counter-hegemonic beliefs. Towards non-didactic freedom from dogma, and fulfilled the child-centered tradition.” ref

Teach Real History: all our lives depend on it.

#SupportRealArchaeology

#RejectPseudoarchaeology

Damien sees lies about history as crimes against humanity. And we all must help humanity by addressing “any and all” who make harmful lies about history.

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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My favorite “Graham Hancock” Quote?

“In what archaeologists have studied, yes, we can say there is NO Evidence of an advanced civilization.” – (Time 1:27) Joe Rogan Experience #2136 – Graham Hancock & Flint Dibble

Help the Valentine fight against pseudoarchaeology!!!
 
In a world of “Hancocks” supporting evidence lacking claims, be a “John Hoopes” supporting what evidence explains.
 
#SupportEvidenceNotWishfullThinking
 
Graham Hancock: @Graham__Hancock
John Hoopes: @KUHoopes

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

People don’t commonly teach religious history, even that of their own claimed religion. No, rather they teach a limited “pro their religion” history of their religion from a religious perspective favorable to the religion of choice. 

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

Do you truly think “Religious Belief” is only a matter of some personal choice?

Do you not see how coercive one’s world of choice is limited to the obvious hereditary belief, in most religious choices available to the child of religious parents or caregivers? Religion is more commonly like a family, culture, society, etc. available belief that limits the belief choices of the child and that is when “Religious Belief” is not only a matter of some personal choice and when it becomes hereditary faith, not because of the quality of its alleged facts or proposed truths but because everyone else important to the child believes similarly so they do as well simply mimicking authority beliefs handed to them. Because children are raised in religion rather than being presented all possible choices but rather one limited dogmatic brand of “Religious Belief” where children only have a choice of following the belief as instructed, and then personally claim the faith hereditary belief seen in the confirming to the belief they have held themselves all their lives. This is obvious in statements asked and answered by children claiming a faith they barely understand but they do understand that their family believes “this or that” faith, so they feel obligated to believe it too. While I do agree that “Religious Belief” should only be a matter of some personal choice, it rarely is… End Hereditary Religion!

Opposition to Imposed Hereditary Religion

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Animism: Respecting the Living World by Graham Harvey 

“How have human cultures engaged with and thought about animals, plants, rocks, clouds, and other elements in their natural surroundings? Do animals and other natural objects have a spirit or soul? What is their relationship to humans? In this new study, Graham Harvey explores current and past animistic beliefs and practices of Native Americans, Maori, Aboriginal Australians, and eco-pa