Weaving and Mythology: Spider Grandmother/Woman (rarely Spider Grandfather/Man), often related with moon deities, and/or WISE/Intelligent Creator/Crafter, seen in Indigenous Beliefs in the Americas as well as around the World

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Archaeological Tropes That Perpetuate Colonialism

“The archaeological myths about collapse and abandonment deny how contemporary Indigenous peoples maintain continuity or association with ancestral places.” ref

Empty lands. Abandoned. Up for grabs.

“That’s the logical—but mythical and false—thinking of settler colonialism, or the replacement of one set of peoples with another, in what is today the United States. The idea that Indigenous peoples had previously “abandoned” their lands meant those places could be occupied by settlers. The lands could then be mined, “scientifically” excavated, made into federally run parks or forests, or otherwise used at will by the U.S. government.” ref

“Starting in the 19th century, archaeologists helped create a recurrent theme, or trope, about social collapse and abandonment that was figurative and metaphorical, not literal or based in Indigenous truths. As Indigenous archaeologists ourselves from Tribal communities in the U.S. Southwest—Laluk is Ndee (White Mountain Apache), and Aguilar is San Ildefonso Pueblo (Tewa)—we’re all too familiar with how these tropes still carry weight. These narratives implicate archaeology in the dispossession of Indigenous peoples from our lands, resources, cultural patrimony, and histories. Ultimately, some of the ideas that come from archaeology have been used to justify the basic practices of settler colonialism.” ref

“The dispossession of Indigenous peoples from our lands is much more complicated, of course. Nonetheless, one of the real-world consequences of this mindset for contemporary Indigenous peoples is that we have few legal rights to have a voice in the care and disposition of much of our ancestral lands and places. These landscapes are still vulnerable to the tendencies of settler colonialism. We confront these mindsets by offering new perspectives on archaeology informed by Indigenous ways of thinking that can begin to rewrite the narrative and shift theories and methods within archaeology and beyond.” ref 

Spider Myths & Lore 

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Spiders Lurking by the Water?

“The diving bell spider Argyroneta aquatica uses these hairs to transport a large volume of air to its underwater canopy. Other spiders burrow under the sand and surround their nests with waterproof silken barriers to stay safe when the tide is high. Some Spiders make nests inside seashells, while others tote bubbles of air on their backs. “Spiders are surprisingly adaptable, which is one of the reasons they can inhabit this environment.” ref

“What scientists do know is that dozens of described spider species spend at least some of their time in or near the water, and more are almost surely awaiting discovery, says Sarah Crews, an arachnologist at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco. It also appears that spiders evolved aquatic preferences on several distinct occasions during the history of this arthropod order. Crews and colleagues surveyed spiders and reported in 2019 that 21 taxonomic families include semiaquatic species, suggesting that the evolutionary event occurred multiple independent times. Only a swashbuckling few—not even 0.3 percent of described spider species—are seashore spiders; many more have been found near fresh water, says Nelson.” ref

“It’s not clear what would induce successful land-dwelling critters to move to watery habitats. Spiders, as a group, probably evolved about 400 million years ago from chunkier creatures that had recently left the water. These arthropods lacked the skinny waist sported by modern spiders. Presumably, the spiders that later returned to a life aquatic were strongly drawn by something to eat there, or driven by unsafe conditions on land, says Geerat Vermeij, a paleobiologist and professor emeritus at the University of California, Davis—because water would have presented major survival challenges.” ref

“Since they depend on air so much, they are severely limited in whether they can do anything at all when they are submerged, other than just toughing it out,” says Vermeij. Newly aquatic spiders would have had to compete with predators better adapted to watery conditions, such as crustaceans, with competition particularly fierce in the oceans, Vermeij says. And if water floods a spider’s air circulation system, it will die, so adaptations were obviously needed. But spiders as a group already possess several water-friendly features, suggests Crews. They have waxy, water-repellent exteriors, often covered in hairs that conveniently trap air bubbles. Even having eight legs is helpful, says Nelson: Spiders can distribute their weight nicely while they skitter across a water surface, or use their octet of appendages to row along.” ref

“Some spiders take their aquatic adaptations to the next level, though. Consider the diving bell spider, Argyroneta aquatica, an overachieving arachnid that is the only one known to do it all under water: breathe, hunt, dine on insects and their larvae, and make spiderlings. Found in fresh water in Europe and parts of Asia, it spins a silken underwater canopy and brings air bubbles from the surface to its submerged home via its body hairs. When it goes out, it carries a smaller air bubble, like a little scuba tank, on its back.” ref

“Seashore spiders face particularly daunting conditions, says Nelson, who co-wrote an article about adaptations of marine spiders for the 2024 Annual Review of Entomology. “There’s a splash zone,” she says. “It’s kind of a wild environment.” A spider might be baking in hot sun one minute, drenched in chilly saltwater the next. Some spiders migrate up and down their beaches with the tides; Nelson speculates that they might monitor lunar cycles to anticipate when to move.” ref

“Other seashore spiders spin watertight nests where they hide out for hours while the tide is in. M. marina, for example, seeks seashells with nice, concave spaces in which to spin safe tents. Another spider, Desis marina, hides in holdfasts where bull kelp attaches to rocks, lining the holdfast’s interior with silk to create an air-filled pocket and staying submerged for as long as 19 days. D. marina emerges only when the tide is going out, to hunt for invertebrates like shrimp.” ref

Animal Omens: The Diving Bell Spider (Water Spider)

“The Diving Bell Spider is a unique creature that constructs a silk web underwater, creating a bell-shaped air bubble that it uses to breathe.” ref

Diving bell spider – Native to freshwater habitats in Europe and Asia.

“A. aquatica is the only known species of spider that spends almost all its life underwater, including resting, catching and eating prey, mating, egg laying, and overwintering. It only briefly surfaces to replenish its oxygen supply and occasionally will bring prey to the surface. Several other spiders are semiaquatic, either periodically living underwater or willing to dive. For example, certain Desis species spend the high tide in an air-filled underwater retreat made from silk and forage on land in the intertidal zone during low tide.” ref

“Some spiders living in periodically flooded habitats can survive for an extended period underwater by entering a coma-like state, up to 16–36 hours in Arctosa fulvolineata. Numerous species, including some Ancylometes, Dolomedes, Megadolomedes, Pardosa, Pirata, Thalassius and others, live above water at the surface, but may actively submerge for a prolonged period, are strong swimmers and will catch underwater prey. Several of these, as well as a few others, may dive into the water to avoid larger predators.” ref

“The appearance of the diving bell gave rise to the genus name Argyroneta, from the Greek “argyros” (ἄργυρος), meaning “silver”, and “neta”, a neologism (perhaps for *νητής) derived from the verb “neo” (νέω) “spin”, intended to mean “spinner of silver”. Both sexes build diving bell webs which are used for digesting prey, although only the female’s larger bell is used for mating and raising offspring. Females spend most of their time within their bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the silk threads that anchor it and occasionally surfacing to replenish the air within the web.” ref

“The bells built by males are typically smaller than females’ and are replenished less often. Water spiders are found in ponds, slow-moving streams, and other shallow bodies of fresh water, particularly where aquatic vegetation is abundant. They are distributed geographically across the northern and central regions of Europe and Siberia.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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“En caul births occur in just one in 80,000 births: born inside their amniotic sacs. En caul is a term used to describe the birth of a fetus and placenta entirely encased in an un-ruptured amniotic sac.” ref

To me, this birth type relates to Cosmic Egg mythology.

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Cosmic egg/World Egg and the Mound of Creation/Mountain of God mythology, seen around the world, are loosely related?

Duality in mythology: Dual Deities, Devine Couple, or Devine Twins beyond Proto-Indo-European

The Water Drum Origin Myth (involves Twins Mythology)

“A girl was hiding in a lake. By the shore was a water shadow. She lay there, because war were kill all her relatives. And something (Waterspirit: Wakcexi? A supernatural force underlying the substance of water itself, water is ni, context of life and death) talked to her. And there’s a something talked to her. He said, “No, girl, don’t think that. You come with me. And they said to her, “After this, you told the other one, to have you make a drum, a great big drum, and you make this drum and this going to be end the war. This drum is going to be a friendship drum. (06:52) The people all praise each other, they give things to each other. When this drum going (?), they be all happy to see each other, and they be all friends to each other. They give things, they give nice things, to each other.” (07:14) Then that drum was the end of war, and this little girl was blessed with something. And something that blessed her, and that’s the time that this drum is adopted (?). People used to war against each other. That’s what this drum ended.” ref

“Commentary. “water” — the word for water is ni (or nį). In the context of life and death, the body is essentially ni. In death, in connection with the shallow Hōcąk graves, the fluid of the body as it decays into nothing more than dry bones, escapes to the surface. In death, the ghost (wanąǧí) goes the way of water. When the wanąǧí lives independent of the flesh, it’s favorite habitat is water. This is a way of expressing the notion that when the independent soul unites with the flesh in conception, it is targeting its natural fluid environment.” ref

“The Twins exemplify much of this philosophy. Ghost is always trying to lure Flesh into its favorite element of water, but there Flesh will die. To make sure that Flesh does not disappear with the escaping ghost into the water(s of the grave), the father of the Twins takes his breath, and inflates two turkey bladders, then ties them to the heads of each, so that the breath keeps the two from disappearing into ghost’s element. The linguistic paradox is that the word for breath, which also functions as a metaphor for life, is ni (or nį), a homonym of water! So the antithesis of the ni of death is ni, “breath”. It keeps the shadow or image of the person, his soul, attached to his flesh. The ni of the body, most commonly, is blood, symbolized by the red of the turkey bladder that contains the ni that is breath and life.” ref

“drum” — in the Hōcąk version, this is reǧorupórogᵋra, which means literally, “kettle made circular and built-over,” from rex, “kettle”, and harupórok, “to be rounded, built-over, domelike” (Miner), which in turn comes from ruporók, “to make something round (like a fist), to be filled up” (Helmbrecht-Lehmann), from ru-, a prefix meaning “to perform using the hand,” and porok, “round.” The water drum is a kettle with some water in it that is covered over, putting the water in the shade. It’s sonic covering is, therefore, like the water-leaf, ni-’ap, which covered the little girls face as she lay in the shaded water. The sounding of this drum is against war, and extolls life (nį̄’ą́p).” ref

“this drum ended” — a Potawatomi shaman refers to this period when inter-tribal warfare ceased as “the Great Peace.” It was marked by the introduction, in the upper midwest, of the Dream Dance or Drum Religion, which teaches inter-tribal amity. This makes it evident that this myth, the myth of the origins of the drum that makes the Great Peace, is about the eponymous drum of the Drum Religion. The theme of the Great Peace is seen among the Ojibwe where “it is customary for Drurn societies to raise one or more Arnerican flags at the dance site for the duration of the ceremony, … the flag is understood to syrnbolize peace between the lndians and the United States Government as well as among all tribes under American jurisdiction.” The Dream Dance or Drum Religon, which emerged from this pax americana, arose among the Dakota in the 1870s, perhaps due in part to the stress that their culture endured during the Civil War years. The Drum Religion quickly spread to the Ojibwe in Minnesota. By 1879 it had spread to the neighboring friendship tribe of the Hōcągara, the Menominee.” ref 

“There can be little doubt that the Hōcągara learned of this new cult not long afterwards. Stella Stacy, who tells our story, was born around this time in 1884. Paradoxically, it is clear that among all the tribes thusfar mentioned, the Drum Religion is in no way connected to the use of water drums. Yet in our story, the sacred drum that performs the central role in a cult of universal peace and amity, which is clealy the Drum Religion, is a water drum. Among the Central Algonkians, the water drum is, as we should expect, devoted to the worship of the Underwater Panther, essentially the same as the Hōcąk Waterspirit (Wakcexi). The obvious inference is that the Hōcągara have innovated, and have made the water drum into the new “Friendship Drum,” which in every respect is to be associated with the Drum Religion. It appears that the Drum Religion among the Hōcągara was simply absorbed into the Native American Church, and the water drum, which is regularly used there for peyote rituals, was employed as part of this assimilation process.” ref 

The History and Significance of Native American Water Drums

“The Iroquois tribe is famous for their small wooden water drum, which features a tanned hide that produces different sounds depending on the amount of water added and the level of wetness of the drum’s coat. There are two main types of Native American water drums: the Southwestern water drum, made from a large gourd cut in half and floating in a basin of water, and the Northeastern water drum, which is like a miniature, water-filled barrel with a tanned leather drumhead sealing the mouth. The Northeastern water drums are particularly intriguing as they are constructed and perform completely unlike other drums that rely on taut leather drumheads to make the sound. Instead, they rely on a moistened leather drumhead tightened by forcing a cloth-covered ring down over a tapering body, and the sound is regulated by water held inside the drum chamber.” ref

“There are several ways to construct a water drum, each with its unique characteristics. The first and probably the oldest is a hollowed-out log with the outside carved to a taper to allow the tightening hoop to properly tighten the drumhead. The second uses standard Euroamerican coopered construction, which is identical to the ubiquitous 19th-century wooden firkin bucket. The third is a modern Haudenosaunee variation of the coopered style, with staves that are glued together with waterproof glue. All of these constructions eventually loosen or crack and leak the watery contents, so old ones are usually sealed on the inside with a mix of sap and charcoal or common tar. Yaqui water drums are made out of a gourd that’s cut in half and placed in a basin of water. The shaman or drummer hits the gourd with a stick, and the vibrations that are produced cause the water to resonate. Water drums are often associated with Navajo music, but they have also been used by other tribes, including the Yaqui people.” ref

“While there are many ways to create a Native American drum, the most common procedure involves a base and animal hide. Logs are hollowed out, and the leather is placed in water for a few hours to soak. Once the hide is pliable, it can be stretched over the surface of the log to dry. The hide that they stretched over the drum was believed to bring a unique spirit to the drum and came from animals that they hunted for food. Historically, the coats came from elk or deer, while today they are usually cowhide. Various images are also added to help connect the drummer to the instrument. The paint used is often made from natural materials such as berries or roots, with red rock powder being a common source for the iconic earthy red color seen in Native American art.” ref

“Even the shape of Native American drums is symbolic, as the circle stands for the circle of earth and life. Native Americans are known for using everything they could from an animal, that’s truly sustainable! Once the drum is chosen or made, although hard to resist, it is the Native American healing belief that it should not be played until what is referred to as the sacred awakening ceremony takes place. The sacred awakening ceremony, from the birth of the drum to its awakening, generally lasts seven days but may vary throughout different tribes or cultures. During this ceremony, there are also prayers and the giving of thanks to the animal and tree that gave their lives for the creation of the drum, prayers and ritual smudging of the drum and drummer before it is played, and prayers to the people who hear the teaching of the drum. It is believed that the voice of the drum is awakened during this sacred ceremony, and the drum is given a name.” ref

“Native American drums are not only instruments of music, but they are also a sacred symbol of their culture and traditions. The creation and use of drums are embedded in their beliefs, and it reflect their deep connection with nature and the spiritual world. The use of drums in ceremonies and rituals is not just for entertainment, but it also plays a significant role in healing and bringing communities together. Moreover, the art of drum-making is passed down from generation to generation, which makes it an integral part of their cultural heritage. By understanding the history and significance of Native American drums, we can appreciate and respect their culture and traditions.” ref

Yaqui music (CYOTEE Mythology)

“Yaqui music is the music of the Yaqui tribe and people of Arizona and Sonora. Their most famous music are the deer songs (Yaqui: maso bwikam) which accompany the deer dance. Their deer song rituals resemble those of other Uto-Aztecan groups (Yaqui is an Uto-Aztecan language) though is more central to their culture. Native and Spanish instruments are used including the harp, violin or fiddle, rasp (hirukiam, also kuta), drum, and rattles. Singing forms include the deer songs as well as messenger songs (suru bwikam), corn wine songs (vachi vino bwikam), fly songs (nahi bwikam), and coyote songs (wo’i bwikam).” ref

“The deer dance, usually held all night, thanks and honors the deer, little brother (maso, little brother deer: saila maso), for coming from its home, the flower world (seyewailo), and letting itself be killed so that people may live. Deer dancers, pahkolam (ritual clowns), wear rattles around their ankles made from butterfly cocoons, honoring the insect world, and rattles from the hooves of deer around their waist, honoring the many deer who have died. The dance is also accompanied by singing and instruments including water drum (representing the deer’s heartbeat) and frame drum, rasp (representing the deer’s breathing), gourd rattles held by the dancers (honoring the plant world), as well as the flute, fiddle, and frame harp. The pahkolam dance, give sermons, host (providing water, etc.), joke, and put on comedic skits, such as pretending to be coyotes.” ref

“The deer singers (masobwikamem) sing lyrics describing things from nature and which may be seen by the deer. The song lyrics use a way of talking which differs slightly from casual Yaqui and resembles Yaqui elders’ speech in some ways, for example syllable repetition (reduplication) such as the use of yeyewe rather than yewe (“play”), or substituting /l/ for another phoneme. Deer songs also contain important terms, such as seyewailo, which may be considered archaic. Fairly conventionalized, deer songs consist of two sections, comparable to stanzas, the first (u vat weeme) and the concluding (u tonua) parts: “the first part is sung many times and then the concluding part will fall down there.” The conclusion often uses antithesis.” ref

Wisakedjak found in northern Algonquian and Dene storytelling: Cyotee mythology

“Wisakedjak (Wìsakedjàk in Algonquin, Wīsahkēcāhk(w) in Cree and Wiisagejaak in Oji-cree) is the Crane Manitou found in northern Algonquian and Dene storytelling, similar to the trickster Nanabozho in Ojibwa aadizookaanan (sacred stories), Inktonme in Assiniboine lore, and Coyote or Raven from many different tribes. His name is found in a number of different forms in the related languages and cultures he appears in, including Weesack-kachack, Wisagatcak, Wis-kay-tchach, Wissaketchak, Woesack-ootchacht, Vasaagihdzak, and Weesageechak. As with most mythological characters, Wisakedjak is used to explain the creation of animals or geographical locations. He is generally portrayed as being responsible for a great flood which destroyed the world. In other stories he is also one of the beings who created the current world, either on his own, or with magic given to him by the Creator for that specific purpose.” ref

Flood myth

“A flood myth or a deluge myth is a myth in which a great flood, usually sent by a deity or deities, destroys civilization, often in an act of divine retribution. Parallels are often drawn between the flood waters of these myths and the primeval waters which appear in certain creation myths, as the flood waters are described as a measure for the cleansing of humanity, in preparation for rebirth. Most flood myths also contain a culture hero, who “represents the human craving for life”. The flood-myth motif occurs in many cultures, including the manvantara-sandhya in Hinduism, Deucalion and Pyrrha in Greek mythology, the Genesis flood narrative, the Mesopotamian flood stories, and the Cheyenne flood story. Floods in the wake of the Last Glacial Period (c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago) are speculated to have inspired myths that survive to this day.” ref

“Archaeologist Bruce Masse stated that some of the narratives of a great flood discovered in many cultures around the world may be linked to an oceanic asteroid impact that occurred between Africa and Antarctica, around the time of a solar eclipse, that caused a tsunami. Among the 175 myths he analyzed were a Hindu myth speaking of an alignment of the five planets at the time, and a Chinese story linking the flood to the end of the reign of Empress Nu Wa. Fourteen flood myths refer to a full solar eclipse. According to Masse these indications point to the date May 10, 2807 BCE. His hypothesis suggests that a meteor or comet crashed into the Indian Ocean around 3000–2800 BCE, and created the 18-mile (29 km) undersea Burckle Crater and Fenambosy Chevron, and generated a giant tsunami that flooded coastal lands.” ref

“Mesopotamia, like other early sites of riverine civilisation, was flood-prone; and for those experiencing valley-wide inundations, flooding could destroy the whole of their known world. According to the excavation report of the 1930s excavation at Shuruppak (modern Tell Fara, Iraq), the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic layers at the site were separated by a 60-cm yellow layer of alluvial sand and clay, indicating a flood, like that created by river avulsion, a process common in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. Similar layers have been recorded at other sites as well, all dating to different periods, which would be consistent with the nature of river avulsions. Shuruppak in Mesopotamian legend was the city of Uta-napishtim, the king who built a boat to survive the coming flood. The alluvial layer dates from around 2900 BCE.” ref

“The geography of the Mesopotamian area changed considerably with the filling of the Persian Gulf after sea waters rose following the last glacial period. Global sea levels were about 120 m (390 ft) lower around 18,000 years ago and rose until 8,000 years ago when they reached current levels, which are now an average 40 m (130 ft) above the floor of the Gulf, which was a huge (800 km × 200 km, 500 mi × 120 mi) low-lying and fertile region in Mesopotamia, in which human habitation is thought to have been strong around the Gulf Oasis for 100,000 years. A sudden increase in settlements above the present-day water level is recorded at around 7,500 years ago.” ref 

Rain Drum – Musical Instrument

“Various nations have laid claim to the rain drum as a prized invention of their own, including China, India, Thailand, and Vietnam. According to archaeologists, that debate is no debate: the rain drum originated in what is now Vietnam during the 5th century BCE., with some saying it may have been around all the way in 2500 BCE. It was first made as a ceremonial drum by the Dong Son civilization, which dates back to 1000 BCE. The Dong Son also incorporated it as a war drum and element of funerals, both as a ritual instrument and as an urn. The rain drum would go on to spread throughout southeastern Asia and beyond with the dawn of the Bronze Age.” ref

“The rain drum has been widely integrated into various cultures as a symbol of fertility, one of which is that of the Karen people or Myanmar (formerly Burma) and northern Thailand, bordering China. The Karens hold it as one of their most sacred ritual artifacts, used to please the “nats,” or spirits that live within trees and water. Among them, ownership of a rain drum brought great status. These drums have often been decorated with frogs, symbolizing rainfall. Rain drums are actually named as such because of the sound they make when struck with rain from the many monsoons that occur in southeastern Asia.” ref 

“Wenabozho (also spelled Waynaboozhoo, Nanabozho, Nanabushu, Nanabush, Manabozho, Minabozho, and several other ways.) Wenabozho is the benevolent culture hero of the Anishinaabe tribes (sometimes referred to as a “transformer” by folklorists.) His name is spelled so many different ways partially because the Anishinabe languages were originally unwritten (so English speakers just spelled it however it sounded to them at the time), and partially because the Ojibway and Algonquin languages are spoken across a huge geographical range in both Canada and the US, and the name sounds different in different dialects. The correct pronounciation here in Minnesota is similar to way-nuh-boo-zhoo, but in other places in the Anishinabe world it is pronounced nay-nuh-boo-zhoo, nain-boo-zhoo, nain-bozh, nay-nuh-boash, or mah-nah-boo-zhoo. Wenabozho shares some similarities with other Algonquian heroes such as the Wabanaki Glooskap, Blackfoot Napi, and Cree Wesakechak, and many of the same stories are told in different Algonquian tribes with only the identity of the protagonist differing.” ref 

Waynaboozhoo and the Great Flood, an Ojibwe legend

“Long ago the world was filled with evil. Men and women lost respect for each other. The Creator was unhappy about this and decided to cause a great flood to purify the earth. A man named Waynaboozhoo survived. He turned some floating sticks and a log into a raft for the animals and himself. They floated around for a full moon waiting for the water to go down. It didn’t, so Waynaboozhoo decided to do something about it…” ref

“…Then Waynaboozhoo took Aajigade’s mud in his hands and began to shape it. Next he commanded it to grow. As it grew, he needed a place to put it. Mikinaak (the snapping turtle) came forward and said, “I have a broad back. Place it here.” Waynaboozhoo put it on Mikinaak’s back so that it could grow larger. “Miigwetch, Mikinaak,” said Waynaboozhoo. “From this day on, you shall have the ability to live in all the worlds, under the mud, in the water, and on land.” The mud began to take the shape of land. Waynaboozhoo placed some tiny enigoonsags (ants) on it.” ref

“This made it start to spin and grow more. It grew and grew, and more animals stepped onto it until finally it was large enough for moose to walk about. Now Waynaboozhoo sent benishiyag (the birds) to fly around to survey how large the land was. He said to them, “Return to me now and again to let me know how the land is doing. Send back your messages with songs. To this day, that is what the birds continue to do. That is also why they are called the singers. At last, Waynaboozhoo stepped onto the New World. It had become a home, a place for all the animals, insects and birds, a place for all living things to live in harmony.” ref

“The Turtle Clan (Mikinaak/Mshiikenh Dodem) is part of the great Fish Clan (Giigoonh Dodem). The Turtle people are connected to Mother Earth (Akikwe) and represent our direct relationship with all of Creation. Members of this clan are determined, loyal, and goal oriented.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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World Turtle

Mikinaak (Ojibway or Chippewa: snapping turtle)-(whose Turtle Clan and its totem are called Mikinaak)

“Snapping turtle is carrying the “earth” on its back.” ref, ref 

I don’t have to believe or guess; I know from many years of deep study that Archaeologists are right! I also know the supporters of Pseudoarchaeology, like Hancock, are not just in slight error but rather are deeply wrong! Support champions like John Hoopes and real archaeology.

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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“Turtle Island is a name for Earth or North America, used by some American Indigenous peoples, as well as by some Indigenous rights activists. The name is based on a creation myth common to several indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of North America.” ref

“Lenape mythology is the mythology of the Lenape people, an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands. The Lenape story of the “Great Turtle” was first recorded by Europeans between 1678 and 1680 by Jasper Danckaerts. The story is shared by other Northeastern Woodlands tribes, notably the Iroquois peoples. The Lenape believe that before creation there was nothing, an empty dark space. However, in this emptiness, there existed a spirit of their creator, Kishelamàkânk. Eventually in that emptiness, he fell asleep. While he slept, he dreamt of the world as we know it today, the Earth with mountains, forests, and animals. He also dreamt up man, and he saw the ceremonies man would perform. Then he woke up from his dream to the same nothingness he was living in before. Kishelamàkânk then started to create the Earth as he had dreamt it.” ref

“First, he created helper spirits, the Grandfathers of the North, East, and West, and the Grandmother of the South. Together, they created the Earth just as Kishelamàkânk had dreamt it. One of their final acts was creating a special tree. From the roots of this tree came the first man, and when the tree bent down and kissed the ground, woman sprang from it. All the animals and humans did their jobs on the Earth, until eventually a problem arose. There was a tooth of a giant bear that could give the owner magical powers, and the humans started to fight over it.” ref

“Eventually, the wars got so bad that people moved away, and made new tribes and new languages. Kishelamàkânk saw this fighting and decided to send down a spirit, Nanapush, to bring everyone back together. He went on top of a mountain and started the first Sacred Fire, which gave off a smoke that caused all the people of the world to come investigate what it was. When they all came, Nanapush created a pipe with a sumac branch and a soapstone bowl, and the creator gave him Tobacco to smoke with. Nanapush then told the people that whenever they fought with each other, to sit down and smoke tobacco in the pipe, and they would make decisions that were good for everyone.” ref

“The same bear tooth later caused a fight between two evil spirits, a giant toad and an evil snake. The toad was in charge of all the waters, and amidst the fighting he ate the tooth and the snake. The snake then proceeded to bite his side, releasing a great flood upon the Earth. Nanapush saw this destruction and began climbing a mountain to avoid the flood, all the while grabbing animals that he saw and sticking them in his sash. At the top of the mountain there was a cedar tree that he started to climb, and as he climbed he broke off limbs of the tree. When he got to the top of the tree, he pulled out his bow, played it and sang a song that made the waters stop. Nanapush then asked which animal he could put the rest of the animals on top of in the water. The turtle volunteered saying he’d float and they could all stay on him, and that’s why they call the land Turtle Island.” ref

“Nanapush then decided the turtle needed to be bigger for everyone to live on, so he asked the animals if one of them would dive down into the water to get some of the old Earth. The beaver tried first, but came up dead and Nanapush had to revive him. The loon tried second, but its attempt ended with the same fate. Lastly, the muskrat tried. He stayed down the longest, and came up dead as well, but he had some Earth on his nose that Nanapush put on the Turtles back. Because of his accomplishment, Nanapush told the muskrat he was blessed and his kind would always thrive in the land.” ref

“Nanapush then took out his bow and again sang, and the turtle started to grow. It kept growing, and Nanapush sent out animals to try to get to the edge to see how long it had grown. First, he sent the bear, and the bear returned in two days saying he had reached the end. Next, he sent out the deer, who came back in two weeks saying he had reached the end. Finally, he sent the wolf, and the wolf never returned because the land had gotten so big. Lenape tradition said wolves howl because call for their ancestor to come back home.” ref

Earth diver, Axis Mundi, and World Turtle Mythology

Shapeshifters: found among Totemists, Shamanists, and Paganists?

List of shapeshifters

Spider as “The trickster”

“Tricksters are central particularly in animistic mythologies such as those from Africa, Native America, and Australia. Ananse and Legba are African examples, and Iktome, Coyote, and Raven are popular in America. In Australia, ancient figures who do walkabouts in Dreamtime are trickster-like. Tricksters reflect a preconscious unrestricted or instinctive appetite for pleasure of all kinds. They often take animal form. They are shapeshifters, and although sometimes they act as culture heroes who assist a creator, more often they undermine the creator’s work and introduce such realities as death into the newly created worlds (e.g., Satan as a shapeshifting figure—the serpent—in the Garden of Eden).” ref 

Tricksters – Myth Encyclopedia 

“In mythology and the study of folklore and religion, a trickster is a character in a story (god, goddess, spirit, human or anthropomorphisation) who exhibits a great degree of intellect or secret knowledge and uses it to play tricks or otherwise disobey normal rules and defy conventional behavior. Many cultures have tales of the trickster, a crafty being who uses tricks to get food, steal precious possessions, or simply cause mischief. Frequently the trickster figure exhibits gender and form variability. In Norse mythology the mischief-maker is Loki, who is also a shapeshifter. Loki also exhibits sex variability, in one case even becoming pregnant. According to “The Song of Hyndla” in The Poetic Edda, Loki becomes a mare who later gives birth to Odin’s eight-legged horse Sleipnir.” ref 

“Tricksters are archetypal, almost always male, characters who appear in the myths of many different cultures. As their name suggests, tricksters love to play tricks on other gods (and sometimes on humans and animals). But perhaps the best definition of a trickster is the one given by Lewis Hyde: “trickster is a boundary-crosser”. By that, he means that the trickster crosses both physical and social boundaries– the trickster is often a traveller, and he often breaks societal rules. Tricksters cross lines, breaking or blurring connections and distinctions between “right and wrong, sacred and profane, clean and dirty, male and female, young and old, living and dead” (Hyde). The trickster often changes shape (turning into an animal, for example) to cross between worlds. In his role as boundary-crosser, the trickster sometimes becomes the messenger of the gods.” ref

“Lewis Hyde notes that in addition to crossing boundaries, trickster also creates them: “In several mythologies, for example, the gods lived on earth until something trickster did caused them to rise to heaven”. Since they are so clever, tricksters often invent new cultural goods or tools (e.g., making fire, musical instruments). Sometimes they are depicted as creators or makers of the world. Often, the deeds of tricksters end up being responsible for the way the world is now.” ref

“But there is another side to the trickster. As David Leeming notes, “he is sexually over-active, irresponsible, and amoral. But it is that very phallicism that signifies his essential creativity” (God 24). Tricksters are also creative liars. They lie in order to obtain sex or food, or the means to cook or procure food. Many of their tricks originate in this quest for food or sex. Lewis Hyde writes, “Trickster lies because he has a belly, the stories say; expect truth only from those whose belly is full or those who have escaped the belly altogether.” ref

“Although he is clever, trickster’s desires sometimes land him in a lot of trouble. Leeming notes that “he is often the butt of his own tricks, and even in his creative acts he is often crude and ‘immature'” (God 24). In hunting cultures, the trickster is often depicted as a clever but foolish animal, led by his appetites. For example, in American Indian cultures, the trickster is often called “coyote” or “raven.” Paul Radin writes:

. . . as found among the North American Indians, Trickster is at one and the same time creator and destroyer, giver and negator, he who dupes others, and who is always duped himself. He wills nothing consciously. At all times he is constrained to behave as he does from impulses over which he has no control. He knows neither good nor evil yet he is responsible for both. He possesses no values, moral or social, is at the mercy of his passions and appetites, yet through his actions all values come into being. But not only he, so our myth tells us, possesses these traits. (xxii)” ref

“Not all mythologists would agree that tricksters “will nothing consciously” and have “no control.” But it is true that the trickster is often the wise fool. Trickster tales have different functions in various societies. Certainly the stories are told because they are funny and entertaining; but they are also in some sense sacred. Radin reports that the reaction to trickster stories “is prevailingly one of laughter tempered by awe” (xxiv). Hyde notes that tricksters always function within some sort of “sacred context” (13).” ref

“But in addition, as John Lame Deer said, tricksters “are sacred [because] we Indians also need their laughter to survive” (quoted in Erdoes and Ortiz xxi). Tricksters need the more serious gods to bounce off from and create their mischief. However, Richard Erdoes and Alfonso Ortiz point out that even supposedly serious chief gods can share some of the trickster’s traits: for example, Zeus is both an philanderer and a shape-shifter–he changed into a swan in order to make love to Leda and into a shower of gold in order to impregnate Danae (xiv-xv). Zeus is also known for his ability to trick and outwit his rivals–remember the stories about Kronos and Metis?” ref

“Certainly, trickster stories are told for fun and laughs, and a trickster like Bart Simpson is a great character to get a plot started and entangled. But trickster stories also have something to say about how culture gets created, and about the nature of intelligence. Trickster represents a certain flexibility of mind and spirit, a willingness to defy authority and invent clever solutions that keeps cultures (and stories) from becoming too stagnant.” ref 

List of fictional tricksters

Does ve’ho’e mean “whiteman” or “trickster”?

“Of all the semantic uses of vé’ho’e today, including reference to the homonym vé’ho’e ‘spider’, by far, the predominant meaning is ‘whiteman’. Even though this word originally referred to the Algonquian culture hero, sometimes a trickster’, this referential meaning is essentially lost today. The etymology and social ramifications of vé’ho’e make a very fascinating study. The word vé’ho’e has been a very important word in the history of Cheyenne, and it continues to evoke strong emotional feelings and semantic connotations within Cheyenne speakers. The words for ‘whiteman’ and ‘spider’ are the same in two Plains Algonquian languages, Cheyenne and Arapaho. This homonymy is often discussed by Cheyenne speakers.” ref

ref

“Nanabozho (in syllabics: ᓇᓇᐳᔓ, [nɐˌnɐbʊˈʒʊ]), also known as Nanabush, is a spirit in Anishinaabe aadizookaan (traditional storytelling), particularly among the Ojibwe. Nanabozho figures prominently in their storytelling, including the story of the world’s creation. Nanabozho is the Ojibwe trickster figure and culture hero (these two archetypes are often combined into a single figure in First Nations mythologies, among others). Nanabozho can take the shape of male or female animals or humans in storytelling. Most commonly it is an animal such as a raven or coyote which lives near the tribe and which is cunning enough to make capture difficult. Nanabozho is a trickster figure in many First Nation storytellings. While the use of Nanabush through storytelling can be for entertainment, it is often used as a way to pass down information and general life lessons.” ref

“Nanabozho is a shapeshifter who is both zoomorphic as well as anthropomorphic, meaning that Nanabozho can take the shape of animals or humans in storytelling. Thus Nanabush takes many different forms in storytelling, often changing depending on the tribe. The majority of storytelling depicts Nanabozho through a zoomorphic lens. In the Arctic and sub-Arctic, the trickster is usually called Raven. Coyote is present in the area of California, Oregon, the inland plateau, the Great Basin, and the Southwest and Southern Plains. Rabbit or Hare is the trickster figure in the Southeast, and Spider is in the northern plains. Meanwhile, Wolverine and Jay are the trickster in parts of Canada. Often, Nanabozho takes the shape of these animals because of their frequent presence among tribes. The animals listed above have similar behavioral patterns. For example, they all live near human settlements and are very cunning, enough so as to be captured with great difficulty.” ref

“As a trickster figure, it is often Nanabozho’s goal to create problems, which often highlight the struggles many Native people experience. According to Anishinaabe scholar Leanne Simpson, for instance, Nanabush often experiments with capitalistic means. They can be greedy, manipulative, and money driven. Because of their worldly desires, chaos often ensues. However, by developing deep relationships with others, Nanabozho becomes more balanced. Furthermore, as Nanabozho becomes more receptive to their surroundings, Nanabozho is able to create the ideal of decolonization through learned consent, recognition, and reciprocity. Therefore, the stories of Nanabush are used to guide people through life experiences and teach moral lessons.” ref

Arapaho Chebbeniathan, the Spider Above: High god, Creator, Heisonoonin, and Our Father

“Hichaba Nihancan, Hihcebe’ Nihoo3oo, Hixcéébe Nixóó3o, Hixcéébe Nihóó3oo, Hixceebe Nihoo3o, Tschaba Nihaathu, Hichchebba Nihawthaw.” ref

“Chebbeniathan (or Hichaba Nihancan) means “Spider Above” or “Spider of Heaven” in the Arapaho language, and is the Arapaho name for the Creator (God,) as distinguished from the earthly Nihancan. Sometimes the name is translated in English as “Man Above,” since the literal form of a spider is not ascribed to Hichaba Nihancan. Some people believe that Nihancan and Hichaba Nihancan were originally the same mythological entity, and split into two figures after trickster legends were borrowed from the Crow and Sioux.” ref

Iktomi (ik-toe-me) or Unktomi, Lakota/Dakota/Nakota [Sioux] 

“In Lakota mythology, Iktómi is a spider–trickster spirit, and a culture hero for the Lakota people. Alternate names for Iktómi include Ikto, Ictinike, Inktomi, Unktome, and Unktomi. These names are due to the differences in languages between different indigenous nations, as this spider deity was known throughout many of North America’s tribes. His appearance is that of a spider, but he can take any shape, including that of a human. When he is a human, he is said to wear red, yellow, and white paint, with black rings around his eyes. The Spider, although most tales involve the trickster figure and center on morality lessons for the young, Iktómi was also the bringer of Lakota culture. He is the first born son of Inyan, the Rock. He was originally called Ksa.” ref

“According to author James Walker, Iktómi has his roots in Ksa, the god of wisdom: “Because Ksa had used his wisdom to cause a goddess to hide her face in shame and a god to bow his head in grief, Scan, the god of motion condemned him that he should sit at the feasts of gods no more and should sit on the world without a friend, and his wisdom should be only cunning that would entrap him in his own schemes. He named him Iktómi. So Iktómi is the imp of mischief whose delight is to make others ridiculous.” ref

“The Oglala of south Dakota present Iktómi as the second manifestation, or degeneration, of Ksa, which hatched from the Cosmic Egg being laid by Wak-Inyan, the primordial thunderstorm. Ksa invented language, stories, names and games. In another version Iya is the son of Unk (defined as passion), who detested Ksa. Iya and Unk had an incestious relationship out of which Gnaski, the demon, was the result. Because of this, and for not taking the advice of Ksa, Unk was expelled from the circle of divine entities.” ref

“Unk wanted to outwit Ksa with the help of the cunning of Gnaski. Gnaski succeeds in this, mainly because he has no fear of Skan (the Judge, Activity), by sowing confusion. Gnaski enabled this by mimicking Ksa to perfection; therefore, Gnaski is called Ksapela (little wisdom). The first people were not able to distinguish between the two. Through his folly Gnaski entangles Ksa completely, and through the activity of Skan Ksa consequently becomes a spider, the meaning of the name Iktómi.” ref

“Iktómi still had the feature of making games. It seems that Iktómi, in stories attributed to him, in his very essence is representing the confusion between wisdom and folly. He began playing malicious tricks because people would jeer at his strange or funny looks. Most of his schemes end with him falling into ruin when his intricate plans backfire. Because it is Iktómi, a respected (or perhaps feared) deity playing the part of the idiot or fool, and the story is told as entertainment, the listener is allowed to reflect on misdeeds without feeling like they are being confronted. In other tales, Iktómi is depicted with dignity and seriousness, such as in the popularized myth of the dreamcatcher.” ref

“Iktómi is a shapeshifter, and can use strings to control humans like puppets. He has also the power to make potions that change gods, gain control over people and trick gods and mortals. Mica or Coyote is his great accomplice in all of this, though there are times when he behaves seriously and comes to the aid of the Lakota people, there are instances where he gives the people ways to protect themselves from evil, live a better life with technology, or warn them of danger.

“The tales of Iktómi’s propensity for mischief leads many without a full understanding of Native American mythology to believe that he is an evil figure. However, it is not quite that simple. Iktómi can be seen as both good and bad, and has been portrayed in both ways. Many other Native American tricksters, like Mica (Coyote) are often victims of the same misconception. Despite Lakota not expressing hysteria or extreme fear towards Iktómi, generally, he is viewed as a being whose gaze is to be avoided, lest trouble find you.” ref

“The picture of a spider, of Iktómi, could be used as love magic: by it, the souls of a boy and a girl could be caught and connected. In this case, they cannot escape meeting and falling in love. Lame Deer tells a story in which Iktómi saw a group of ducks. He wanted to eat them and that is why he lied that his bag is full of pou-wow songs. The ducks asked him to sing some of them. He agrees, but only if they close their eyes. So he started killing them, while some realized what was happening.” ref

“Iktómi, says Lame Deer, is like those of the politicians who make us close our eyes, sing and dance for them while they hit us on the head. Because the Lakota mythology is word of mouth, and traditionally there were no written records, most of the information about Iktómi in Lakota mythology has not been written down or recorded. He has lived on in the retelling of tales and the religious traditions which are passed on from generation to generation, into the modern day.” ref

Spider in Shamanism: Spirit Animal Spider: Symbolism & Meaning

“In the spiritual and mythological traditions of many cultures, the Spider totem embodies wisdom, intelligence, and problem-solving abilities. Some traditions regard the Spider as a protective spirit and a symbol of adaptability in challenging situations, while others associate it with fertility and the link between the heavens and the earth. From a shamanic perspective, the Spider is a fascinating and valuable totem animal. The eight-legged weaver teaches that your actions today shape your future. It illustrates how everything in your life is interconnected, revealing the recurring themes and the threads you can pull to effect powerful changes for yourself and others.” ref

The Meaning of the Spider Spirit Animal

“The Spider, as a soul animal, brings awareness to the interconnectedness of all creation forces. Its spiral web, with repeating patterns converging at a single point, is seen by some traditions as a microcosm representing the universe itself. Spiders symbolize higher knowledge, the paths that converge and diverge into the future, and the ability to shape or foresee future events.” ref

Spider Symbolism

Spiders are symbolic of the Moirai, the Greek Fates, who weave the thread of life for every human and the world itself. The Spider spirit animal’s symbolism encompasses both dark and light aspects, reflecting the connection with the many facets of life. Known meanings and attributes of the Spider spirit animal include guidance and realignment, networking and connectivity, balance and equilibrium, femininity, creativity, and patience.

The Messages of the Spider

The core message of the Spider spirit animal is reassurance that everything will be alright. It reminds you to realign with your purpose, encouraging you to take control of your life’s threads and steer your life in the right direction. Spiritually, the Spider is often referred to as the “Weaver of Time.” ref

The Spider as a Symbol of Creativity & Femininity

“Only the Spider knows which threads to traverse without getting caught in its own web, made of both sticky and non-sticky strands. The web, glistening in the morning dew, symbolizes the primal feminine. Spiders are associated with femininity because female spiders are often much larger than males, with the infamous “Black Widow” name derived from the behavior of the spider species known for consuming male counterparts. As a weaver, the Spider represents the spirit of creation, seen in many traditions as a totem of the mother and strong feminine energy. In ancient Egypt, the Spider was used to represent Neith, the goddess of divine motherhood. Among some Native American tribes, it symbolizes the world’s creator, broadly associated with feminine creative energy.” ref

Creating with Silk and Song: Learning from the Power of Spider Woman 

“In the beginning, there was the dark purple light at the dawn of being. Spider Woman spun a line to form the east, west, north, and south. Breath entered man at the time of the yellow light. At the time of the red light, man proudly faced his creator. Spider Woman used the clay of the earth, red, yellow, white, and black, to create people. To each she attached a thread of her web which came from the doorway at the top of her head. This thread was the gift of creative wisdom. Three times she sent a great flood to destroy those who had forgotten the gift of her thread. Those who remembered floated to the new world and climbed to safety through the Sipapu Pole the womb of Mother Earth.” ~Diné Creation Story” ref

“Shamanic images of Grandmother Spider Woman, Earth Goddess, central to the lore of multiple indigenous Native American tribes. The Diné (Navajo), Hopi, Zuni, and others have revered her in oral narrative tradition for centuries, and for this reason any seeker finds a variety of tales describing her influences. She exists primarily as an archetypal Creatrix, Goddess of the underworld from which all things were made. The underworld in this context is not hell, but a seeding dark where connection is born.” ref

“Spider Woman is often a crone, referred to as Grandmother Spider Woman, though some times she is represented in midlife, and other times as a maiden. Her protection assists those in danger through rhythmic songs of creation, magical powers, and the ability to transcend trouble. Spider Woman weaves the web in which we are each connected by a unique strand, and her songs breathe life into all the hard elements in soil and water and clay. She guides souls from one world to the next; she is a guide to heroes and victims alike. While the Hopis tell of her leading people into the fourth world through a hole in the earth, the sipapu, the Diné recognize a towering rock spire located near the Grand Canyon, as her portal into this world.” ref

 Meeting The Spider-Lady: A Shamanic Journey

“A number of spiritual traditions, particularly in the Americas, speak of a medicine wheel. These traditions seek to orient us to the four cardinal directions, the earth below, the heavens above, and the self-connected to them all. (You can read more about this practice of orientation here.).” ref

“Different traditions will often also experience certain animals as totems or guardian figures of the four directions. A person may take a shamanic journey to any of the directions or to the totem animals, to meet them and be taught by them. In a journey one enters into a light trance state–the state that we experience often as a ‘twilight’ state, when we are neither fully asleep nor entirely awake. One then journeys, with an intent, and enters a non-ordinary set of experiences that offer us greater insight, harmony, inspiration, and healing. (Unless you’ve been called by a guardian figure and directly instructed in journeying, it’s best to learn a safe modality to journey from someone experienced in this art.)” ref

“One possible journey is to meet an oppositional figure in each of the directions. This oppositional totem animal is not an enemy, so much as one who brings us face to face with something we fear, are neglecting, or trying to suppress within ourself. The following piece is a description of a journey I took to the land of the South to meet my oppositional totem–in this case, the Spider-Lady–and what she taught me. It helps to know that the South is often seen as the realm of fire, summer, instinct, and healing.” ref

“Cherokee mythology involves a set of totemic creation spirits who are said to have formed the world. The water spider is said to have first brought fire to the inhabitants of the earth in the basket on her back. The Cherokee believed that signs, visions, dreams, and powers were all gifts of the spirits.” ref

“The creation myth of the Cherokee describes the earth as a great floating island surrounded by an ocean. It hangs from the sky by cords attached at the four cardinal points. The story tells that the first earth came to be when Dâyuni’sï, the little water beetle, came down from the sky world (Gälûñ’lätï) to see what was below the water. He paddled over the surface of the water, but found no place to rest. He dived to the bottom of the water and brought up some soft mud. This mud expanded in every direction and became the earth.” ref

“The other spirits in Gälûñ’lätï were eager to come down to the new earth. Firstly, birds were sent to see if the mud was dry. The buzzard was sent ahead to make preparations for the others, but the earth was still soft. When he grew tired, his wings dipped very low and brushed the soft mud, forming mountains and valleys in the flat ground. When the earth was finally dry, all of the animals came down from the sky. It was dark, so they took the Sun and put it in a track to travel east to west. At first, they set it too low and the crawfish was burned. So they elevated the sun several times to reduce its heat.” ref

“The story tells how several other plants and animals got certain features. They all were told to stay awake for seven nights, but only a few animals such as the owl and panther were able to; and so these two were given the power to see and hunt at night. Only a few trees were able to as well – the cedar, pine, spruce and laurel – and so the rest were forced to shed their leaves in the winter. The first people were a brother and sister. The brother hit his sister with a fish and told her to multiply. Following this, she gave birth to a child every seven days. Soon, there were too many people, so women were then forced to have just one child every year.” ref

“The Cherokee revere the Great Spirit. She is called Unelanuhi, the sun goddess. She presided over all things when the earth was created, and was said to have made the earth to provide for her children. Unelanuhi is all-seeing, all-knowing and all-powerful. The Wahnenauhi Manuscript says that God is Unahlahnauhi, meaning “maker of all things”, and Kalvlvtiahi, meaning “the one who lives above”. The twin Thunder Boys are the sons of Kanati and Selu. They live in the land of the west above the sky. When thunder sounds, the boys are playing ball.” ref

“The lightning and the rainbow are their beautiful dress. The priests pray to the thunder and he visited the people to bring the rains and blessings from the South. It was believed that the thunder beings who lived close to the Earth’s surface, in the cliffs and mountains, and under water falls could and did harm the people at times. These other thunders are always plotting mischief. The thunder beings were viewed as the most powerful of the servants of the Great Spirit. They were revered in the first dance of the Green Corn Ceremony held each year. They were believed to have brought the rains for a successful corn crop.” ref

Water Spider in the Zuni Emergence Myth

“In The Zuni Emergence Myth, Water Spider appears and uses his body and long legs to find the center of the earth so that the Zuni people could live there in order for their views to not be swayed in one way. Also, according to the Zuni, string games were given to them by Grandmother Spider.” ref

Spider’s Creation (Sia, New Mexico)

“In the beginning, long, long ago, there was but one being in the lower world. This was the spider, Sussistinnako. At that time, there were no other insects, birds, animals, or any other living creature. The spider drew a line of meal from north to south and then crossed it with another line running east and west. On each side of the first line, north of the second, he placed two small parcels. They were precious, but no one knows what was in them except Spider. Then he sat down near the parcels and began to sing. The music was low and sweet, and the two parcels accompanied him, by shaking like rattles. Then two women appeared, one from each parcel.” ref

“In a short time, people appeared and began walking around. Then animals, birds, and insects appeared, and the spider continued to sing until his creation was complete. But there was no light, and as there were many people, they did not pass about much for fear of treading upon each other. The two women first created were the mothers of all. One was named Utset, and she was the mother of all Indians. The other was Now-utset, and she was the mother of all other nations. While it was still dark, the spider divided the people into clans, saying to some, “You are of the Corn clan, and you are the first of all.” To others, he said, “You belong to the Coyote clan.” So he divided them into their clans, the clans of the Bear, the Eagle, and other clans.” ref

After Spider had nearly created the earth, Ha-arts, he thought it would be well to have rain to water it, so he created the Cloud People, the Lightning People, the Thunder People, and the Rainbow People, to work for the people of Ha-arts, the earth. He divided this creation into six parts, and each had its home in a spring in the heart of a great mountain upon whose summit was a giant tree. One was in the spruce tree on the Mountain of the North; another in the pine tree on the Mountain of the West; another in the oak tree on the Mountain of the South; and another in the aspen tree on the Mountain of the East; the fifth was on the cedar tree on the Mountain of the Zenith; and the last in an oak on the Mountain of the Nadir.” ref

“The spider divided the world into three parts: Ha-arts, the earth; Tinia, the middle plain; and Hu-wa-ka, the upper plain. Then the spider gave to these People of the Clouds and to the rainbow, Tinia, the middle plain. Now it was still dark, but the people of Ha-arts made houses for themselves by digging in the rocks and the earth. They could not build houses as they do now, because they could not see. In a short time Utset and Now-utset talked much to each other, saying, “We will make light, that our people may see. We cannot tell the people now, but to-morrow will be a good day and the day after to-morrow will be a good day,” meaning that their thoughts were good. So they spoke with one tongue. They said, “Now all is covered with darkness, but after a while we will have light.” ref

“Then these two mothers, being inspired by Sussistinnako, the spider, made the sun from white shell, turkis, red stone, and abalone shell. After making the sun, they carried him to the east and camped there, since there were no houses. The next morning they climbed to the top of a high mountain and dropped the sun down behind it. After a time he began to ascend. When the people saw the light they were happy. When the sun was far off, his face was blue; as he came nearer, the face grew brighter. Yet they did not see the sun himself, but only a large mask which covered his whole body. The people saw that the world was large and the country beautiful.” ref

“When the two mothers returned to the village, they said to the people, “We are the mothers of all.” The sun lighted the world during the day, but there was no light at night. So the two mothers created the moon from a slightly black stone, many kinds of yellow stone, turkis, and a red stone, that the world might be lighted at night. But the moon travelled slowly and did not always give light. Then the two mothers created the Star People and made their eyes of sparkling white crystal that they might twinkle and brighten the world at night. When the Star People lived in the lower world they were gathered into beautiful groups; they were not scattered about as they are in the upper world.” ref

“The Zia or Tsʾíiyʾamʾé are an indigenous nation centered at Zia Pueblo (Tsi’ya), a Native American reservation in the U.S. state of New Mexico. The Zia are known for their pottery and use of the sun symbol. They are one of the Keres Pueblo peoples and speak the Eastern Keres language. Archaeologists believe that the Keresan-speaking residents of Zia are descendants of the Ancestral Puebloan people of the Four Corners region, who migrated to the Jemez River Valley sometime in the 13th century.” ref

“The Zia, like the other Pueblos, believe in different spirits called kachinas. These are thought to be ancestral spirits that live among their people. The spirits got offended when people did not pay them attention, so they fled to live in the sky. They were said to come occasionally and bring rain and clouds. Over 300 kachinas are present in the worship, and the Zia held religious festivals and ceremonies in which they ask them to bring rain and make their crops grow. They used drums and rattles in the dances during the ceremonies. Religious men dressed as the kachinas come down from the mountains and dance among the people during the festival. After three days, they go back up.” ref

“The Zia regard the Sun as sacred. Their solar symbol, a red circle with groups of rays pointing in four directions, is painted on ceremonial vases, drawn on the ground around campfires, and used to introduce newborns to the Sun. The Zia sun Symbol is featured on the New Mexico flag. Four is the sacred number of the Zia and can be found repeated in the four points radiating from the circle. The number four is embodied in:

• the four points of the compass (north, south, east, and west)
• the four seasons of the year (spring, summer, autumn, and winter)
• the four periods of each day (morning, noon, evening, and night)
• the four seasons of life (childhood, youth, middle years, and old age)
• the four sacred obligations one must develop (a strong body, a clear mind, a pure spirit, and a devotion to the welfare of others), according to Zia belief” ref

“The symbol is representative of the much broader Puebloan, affiliated Hispano communities, and New Mexican culture, for example it is featured on the flag of New Mexico, in the design of the New Mexico State Capitol, on New Mexico’s State Quarter entry, numerous city flags including Albuquerque and Roswell, and the state highway marker. The Zia tribe does not hold a trademark to the symbol because, under U.S. federal law, it has ubiquitous regional representation. The state government of New Mexico guides people to educational resources on the appropriate use of the sun symbol at Zia Pueblo and at the Indian Pueblo Cultural Center in Albuquerque, including information on receiving permission for commercial use and asking for the symbol be used respectfully in civil use. The symbol was featured on the flag of Madison, Wisconsin from 1962 through 2018, when concerns about cultural appropriation of the Zia, Puebloan, and New Mexican symbol led the city to remove it. A resolution was passed in 2014, by the National Congress of American Indians to recognize the Zia pueblo’s right to the symbol.” ref

“Keres (/ˈkeɪreɪs/), also Keresan (/ˈkɛrəsən/), is a Native American language, spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. Depending on the analysis, Keres is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects. If it is considered a language isolate, it would be the most widely spoken language isolate within the borders of the United States. The varieties of each of the seven Keres pueblos are mutually intelligible with its closest neighbors. There are significant differences between the Western and Eastern groups, which are sometimes counted as separate languages. Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form. The language’s religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika) and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres, both of which are remarkably consistent. Selected Proto-Keresan reconstructions of plants, animals, and toponyms by Miller and Davis (1963): such as Turtle in proto-Keres: *héyᴀdʸɪ; Spider in proto-Keres: *k̍ámᴀsk̠ᵻ.” ref

Weaving age-old tales through art and written stories

“Boozhoo. “Zhaawano Giizhik” is a goldsmith and visual artist. But first and foremost: Nindayaadizooked – they are a storyteller. They feel that like our relative asabikeshiinh (the spider) does each morning at sunrise, they consider themself to be a weaver – a debaajimood, a storyteller at heart who weaves countless threads and patterns of tradition in his story web. Why do they tell stories? The answer is simple: Indigenous people traditionally cognize the world through story. Indigenous storytelling forms the basis of all human teaching and learning so, to them, storytelling is a means to make sense of the world they live in.” ref

“As they weave into their wawezhi’owin (jewelry) and mazinichiganag (paintings) magic tales of yesterday, they never forget to heed the Seven Grandfather Teachings that my Ojibwe Anishinaabe ancestors from the Great Lakes area brought from their original homeland in the east. Each time they create art they honor the age-old practices of their ancestors’ People of sharing human and spiritual experience through storytelling. But, like the delicate intricacy of a spider’s web is enhanced by the rays of the dancing sun shining through the morning dew, their works of art aren’t merely traditional, as they show a distinctly personal style and often testify of a contemporary, modern sense of color and design.” ref

“To describe their art is to reflect back to their forefathers. As they are limited in what they know, or can reveal, about the ancient Anishinaabe ceremonies and Seven Grandfather Teachings, the challenge for them lies in creating abstract, modernly stylized jewelry designs and colorful, expressive paintings to represent the ancient and the sacred. Studying and admiring the contemporary work of the Medicine (Woodland Art) Painters helps them in this process.” ref

“Zhaawano Giizhik sees their art and writings as thematically as well as graphically based on, and inspired by, Gichi-dibaakoniwewin, the Great Binding Law of Gichi-manidoo, the Great Mystery, as well as on  the Seven Grandfather Teachings and the Picture Writings of the Midewiwin, the Grand Medicine Lodge of the Anishinaabe Peoples. Midewiwin, which means literally ‘‘Society of Those Who Are in A Sacred, or Unseen, State,’’ is a prestigious lodge or association of male and female healers and thinkers and artists, respected keepers and protectors of the traditional Anishinaabe way of life and ceremonies that are many thousands of years old.” ref

“The Midewiwin aims to pass on the Great Binding Law of the Great Mystery, and, in particular, to conserve the concept of mino-bimaadiziwin, a set of Seven Grandfather Teachings on human conduct and a spiritual way for living. Its principal focus  is recovering and keeping alive the seven mide-wiigwaasan (birch bark scrolls used for ritual purposes) and their sacred teachings which in recent history had been forced underground. These complex writings also include astronomy, mapping, information about the clan system and family lineage, and up to 1000-year-old migration routes. The symbols depicting historical events, songs, dreams, visions, and prophecies, called mazinaajimowin, were not only inscribed on mide-wiigwaasan, but have also been engraved or painted on cliff walls and rocks for many generations in the past, particularly in those mystic places near the coastline of Gichigami (Lake Superior) where the sky, the earth, the water, the underground, and the underwater meet.” ref

“Until today, many of the Mide writings and records on birch bark have been kept secret – passed on only in sacred spaces by community-acknowledged Keepers of ceremony -, in order to keep the scrolls safe, to interpret them correctly, and to await a better time – when a generation will rise up that walks according to a more intelligent and respectful worldview than we experience now. The ancient visual language of mazinaajimowin – be it written on rock or bark any other natural feature or material – features figures consisting of simple, articulated, flowing outlines that are always, in some way or another, interconnected.” ref

“During the 1960’s, these pictographs (often done in red ochre) and birch bark writings became an endless source of inspiration to the painters of a Canadian-based, modern Indigenous art movement – to which they, too, am greatly indebted. The typical outline drawing style of these ‘‘Medicine’’ painters, which also characterizes my overlay jewelry work, is directly based on the ancient spirit writings of their Anishinaabe forefathers. In order to fit the need of their art practices, the Medicine Painters – led by the late Miskwaabik Animikii (Norval Morrisseau) – began to stylize many of these archaic components into a new abstract visual language, which is now known as the Native, or New Woodland School of Art.” ref

“The outlined figures that the Medicine Painters use for their canvases and that I use in their jewelry and paintings are directly inspired by the rock art of their ancestors; particularly the use of ‘‘spirit lines’’ emanating from the interiors or exteriors of figures and the mystic ‘‘inside views’’ (so-called ‘‘X-ray anatomy’’) of images of people, animals, plants, trees, and supernatural beings, testify of the ancient spirit that lives on in their hearts and minds and works of art.” ref

“The Midewiwin (in syllabics: ᒥᑌᐧᐃᐧᐃᓐ, also spelled Midewin and Medewiwin) or the Grand Medicine Society is a religion of some of the Indigenous peoples of the Maritimes, New England and Great Lakes regions in North America. Its practitioners are called Midew, and the practices of Midewiwin are referred to as Mide. Occasionally, male Midew is called Midewinini, which is sometimes translated into English as “medicine man” or “Shaman.” ref

“According to historian Michael Angel, the Midewin is a “flexible, tenacious tradition that provided an institutional setting for the teaching of the world view (religious beliefs) of the Ojibwa people”. Commonly among the Anishinaabeg, Midewin is ascribed to Wenaboozho (Onaniboozh) as its founder. However, among the Abenakis, Midewiwin is ascribed to Mateguas, who bestowed the Midewiwin upon his death to comfort his grieving brother Gluskab, who is still alive.” ref 

“Walter James Hoffman recorded that according to the Mille Lacs Indians chief Bayezhig (‘Lone One’), Midewiwin has its origin as:

“In the beginning, Midemanidoo (Gichimanidoo) made the midemanidoowag. He first created two men, and two women; but they had no power of thought or reason. Then Midemanidoo (Gichimanodoo) made them rational beings. He took them in his hands so they could multiply; he paired them and sprung the Anishinaabe from this. When there were people he placed them upon the earth, but he soon observed that they were subject to sickness, misery, and death, and that unless he provided them with the Sacred Medicine they would soon become extinct.” ref

“Between the position occupied by Gichi Manidoo and the earth were four lesser manidoog with whom Gichi Manidoo decided to commune, and to impart to them the mysteries by which the Anishinaabeg could be benefited. So he first spoke to a manidoo and told him all he had to say, who in turn communicated the same information to the next, and he in turn to next, who also communed with the next. They all met in council, and determined to call in the four wind manidoog. After consulting as to what would be best for the comfort and welfare of the Anishinaabeg, these manidoog agreed to ask Gichi Manidoo to communicate the Mystery of the Sacred Medicine to the people.” ref

“Gichi Manidoo then went to the Sun Spirit and asked him to go to the earth and instruct the people as had been decided upon by the council. The Sun Spirit, in the form of a little boy, went to the earth and lived with a woman with a little boy of her own. This family went away in the autumn to hunt, and during the winter this woman’s son died. The parents were so much distressed that they decided to return to the village and bury the body there; so they made preparations to return, and as they traveled along, they would each evening erect several poles upon which the body was placed to prevent the wild beasts from devouring it.” ref

“When the dead boy was thus hanging upon the poles, the adopted child—who was the Sun Spirit—would play about the camp and amuse himself, and finally told his adopted father he pitied him, and his mother, for their sorrow. The adopted son said he could bring his dead brother to life, whereupon the parents expressed great surprise and desired to know how that could be accomplished. The adopted boy then had the party hasten to the village, when he said, “Get the women to make a wiigiwaam of bark, put the dead boy in a covering of wiigwaas and place the body on the ground in the middle of the wiigiwaam.” On the next morning after this had been done, the family and friends went into this lodge and seated themselves around the corpse.” ref

“When they had all been sitting quietly for some time, they saw through the doorway the approach of a bear, which gradually came towards the wiigiwaam, entered it, and placed itself before the dead body and said, “ho, ho, ho, ho,” when he passed around it towards the left side, with a trembling motion, and as he did so, the body began quivering, and the quivering increased as the bear continued until he had passed around four times, when the body came to life again and stood up.” ref

“Then the bear called to the father, who was sitting in the distant right-hand corner of the wiigiwaam, and addressed to him the following words:

“The little bear boy was the one who did this. He then remained among the Anishinaabeg and taught them the mysteries of the Midewiwin; and, after he had finished, he told his adopted father that as his mission had been fulfilled he was to return to his kindred manidoog, for the Anishinaabeg would have no need to fear sickness as they now possessed the Midewiwin which would enable them to live. He also said that his spirit could bring a body to life but once, and he would now return to the sun from which they would feel his influence.” ref

“This event is called Gwiiwizens wedizhichigewinid—Deeds of a Little-boy. The midewigaan (‘mide lodge’), also known as mide-wiigiwaam (‘mide wigwam‘) when small or midewigamig (‘mide structure’) when large, is known in English as the Grand Medicine Lodge and is usually built in an open grove or clearing. A midewigaan is a domed structure with the proportion of one unit in width by four units in length. Though Hoffman records these domed oval structures measuring about 20 feet (6.1 m) in width by 80 feet (24 m) in length, the structures are sized to accommodate the number of invited participants, thus many midewigaan for small mide communities in the early 21st century are as small as 6 feet (1.8 m) in width and 24 feet (7.3 m) in length and larger in those communities with more mide participants. The walls of the smaller mide-wiigiwaam consist of poles and saplings from 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) high, firmly planted in the ground, wattled with short branches and twigs with leaves.” ref

“In communities with significantly large mide participants (usually of 100 people or more participants), the midewigamig becomes a formal and permanent ceremonial building that retains the dimensions of the smaller mide-wiigiwaam; a midewigamig might not necessarily be a domed structure, but typically may have vaulted ceilings. Design of the jiisakiiwigaan (‘juggler’s lodge’ or ‘Shaking Tent’ or traditionally ‘shaking wigwam’) is similar in construction as that of the mide-wiigiwaam. Unlike a mide-wiigiwaam that is an oval domed structure, the jiisakiiwigaan is a round high-domed structure of typically 3 feet (0.91 m) in diameter and 6 feet (1.8 m) in height, and large enough to hold two to four people.” ref

“Design of the jiisakiiwigaan (‘juggler’s lodge’ or ‘Shaking Tent’ or traditionally ‘shaking wigwam’) is similar in construction as that of the mide-wiigiwaam. Unlike a mide-wiigiwaam that is an oval domed structure, the jiisakiiwigaan is a round high-domed structure of typically 3 feet (0.91 m) in diameter and 6 feet (1.8 m) in height, and large enough to hold two to four people. The Seven Fires prophecy was originally taught among the practitioners of Midewiwin. Each fire represents a prophetical age, marking phases or epochs of Turtle Island. It represents key spiritual teachings for North America and suggests that the different colors and traditions of humans can come together on the basis of respect. The Algonquins are the keepers of the seven fires prophecy wampum.” ref

Annual and seasonal ceremonies

• Aabita-biboon (Midwinter Ceremony)
• Animoosh ([White] Dog Ceremony)
• Jiibay-inaakewin or Jiibenaakewin (Feast of the Dead)
• Gaagaagiinh or Gaagaagishiinh (Raven Festival)
• Zaazaagiwichigan (Painted Pole Festival)
• Mawineziwin (‘War [Remembrance] Dance’)
• Wiikwandiwin ([Seasonal] Ceremonial Feast)—performed four times per year, once per season. The Wiikwandiwin is begun with a review of the past events, hope for a good future, a prayer and then the smoking of the pipe carried out by the heads of the doodem. These ceremonies are held in mid-winter and mid-summer to bring together people various medicines and combine their healing powers for revitalization. Each Wiikwandiwin is a celebration to give thanks, show happiness and respect to Gichi-manidoo. It is customary to share the first kill of the season during the Wiikwandiwin. This would show Gichi-manidoo thanks and also ask for a blessing for the coming hunt, harvest and season.” ref 

Shamanism at Early Neolithic Göbekli Tepe, southeastern Turkey. Methodological contributions to an archaeology of belief

SPIDERS at Göbekli Tepe

“By viewing the symbolism found at Göbekli Tepe 9500 to 8000 BCE with that at Çatalhöyük (7500 to 6400 both in Turkey, shows some continuity in terms of animal species between the two sites, like the aurochs, but there are also some clear differences; that is, foxes, snakes, SPIDERS and scorpions are much more common at Göbekli Tepe. The similarities between Çatalhöyük and Göbekli and in material culture we have drawn with other sites suggest a very long-term and very far-flung set of myths, ideas, and orientations, even if there were many local variations. While some later work takes a utilitarian view of the animal symbols as representing predators and/or food sources, a more frequent direction for research into the site’s symbolism has tended to focus on emphasizing the role of shamanistic practices, in line with Schmidt’s initial views. In the most recent contribution of this kind, the present contribution has tried to refine already established criteria for the identification of shamanism, to add new ones, and to test them for materials from Göbekli Tepe and contemporary sites. The results are positive for a sufficient number of criteria … in order to identify Göbekli Tepe’s (and PPN) material culture and imagery with an animistic ontology and shamanism.” ref

6,000-year-old drawings of spiders, etchings thought to be the first depiction of arachnids.

“The spider etchings were discovered on the west wall of a sandstone valley in the Kharga Oasis in Egypt. Said to show a few spiders, a web, and a harvestman.” ref

Tsuchigumo means “ground” or “earth” spider in Kabuki and Japanese mythology.

“Altaic/Transeurasian (consist of the Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic language families, with some linguists including the Koreanic and Japonic families) shamans of Eurasia, in addition to deer and bird, sometimes also had the spider spirit as a key helper in their travels to the Underworld.” ref

“The spider was synonymous in the ancient Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles with local indigenous renegade clans. The symbol later evolved into the yokai supernatural folkloric proportions that we know today. What was the origin of the tsuchigumo clan and where did the spider people come from? These clans were found from Yamato Katsuragi to the easternmost parts of Japan, and were associated with mounds and caves or rockcut catacombs. They were thus either indigenous descendants of the Jomon, or another settled tribe of Eurasian or Southeast Asian origin. The Chu (Zhu) state- (Zhou dynasty period) people in Southeast Asia had a spider as their totem and Chinese character name.” ref

“Japan has no tarantulas or really large scary hairy spiders unlike the ferocious Southeast Asian ones. It does however, have the Argiope which is a species also known as the Orb-Weaver spider (see Orb-weaver spiders of the genus Argiope (Aranei, Araneidae) from Russia and Central Asia by Tiunov and Esyunin). The Japanese Argiope sp. (aka kogane-gumo) characteristically spins its webs very low from the ground, trapping its bug prey while deterring mammals from coming close. A Joro-gumo orb-weaver spider who takes the form of a beautiful woman, and who can either drown or protect people from drowning, is still known from the folklore surrounding the Joren Falls in the Izu peninsula in eastern Japan.” ref 

“From Lappland to Central Asia, the spider was a divine or lucky emblem, but large hairy or venomous spiders were also best known to the Central Asians who associated spiders with caverns and holes in the ground, and for whom, the Latrodectrus or the black widow spider, or another species called the Argiope, commanded the respect of peoples across Eurasia. The spider is also said to be associated with the Orion or Corona Borealis constellation from ancient Eurasia across the Beringia to the Americas (construed as astronomy-related myths or folklore of the Blackfoot and Cherokee and other tribes and a totem for the Hopi tribe(see p 181~183 Gary R. Varner’s Creatures in the Mist and How grandmother named the clans (from Bruchao’s Native American Animal Stories) and spider deity or cultural hero of the Oglala Lakota; see also the Spider Nazca lines of Peru, see also Varner).” ref

“It is thus a moot point whether the clans were named for the local spider’s habits, for the indigenous descendants of the hairy Jomon, or the Satsumon, or whether they were so-named because spiders were already totemic identifiers of clans descended from the continental migrants. According to the ancient historian Motoori Norinaga in ancient Japan, Tsuchigumo was used as a derogatory term against aborigines who did not show allegiance to the emperor of Japan. The opposing derogatory fearful and totemic benevolent depictions and descriptive use of the tsuchigumo spider icon might therefore possibly accurately mirror the historical animosity and antagonistic division between the warring factions of west vs eastern clans in ancient Japan. But who might these Tsuchigumo clans have been?” ref

“Katsuragi Hitokotonushi Shrine (葛城一言主神社 Katsuragi Hitokotonushi Jinja) was said to be the remains where Emperor Jimmu captured tsuchigumo and buried their head, body and feet separately to prevent their grudges from harming the living. In historic Yamato Province, the unique physical characteristics of the tsuchigumo were that they were tailed people. In the Nihon Shoki, the founder of the Yoshino no Futo (吉野首) were written to be “with a glowing tail,” the founder of Yoshino no Kuzu (国樔) were stated to “have tails and come along pushing rocks (磐石, iwa),” presenting the indigenous people of Yamato as non-humans.” ref

“In Kita-ku, Kyoto, Jōbonrendai-ji, there is the Minamoto Yorimitsu Ason-no-tsuka (源頼光朝臣塚) deifying Yorimitsu, but this mound has been said to be a nest built by tsuchigumo. Also, in Ichijō-dōri in Kamigyō-ku, there is also a mound said to be built from tsuchigumo, where lanterns were discovered in an excavation and said to be spider lanterns, but those who received this immediately started to trend to receive great fortune, and became afraid of being cursed by tsuchigumo, so these spider lanterns are now dedicated to the temple Tōkō-Kannon-ji in Kannonji-monzen-chō, Kamigyō-ku. [It would therefore appear that many tsuchigumo were mound-builders, either engaged or enslaved to build the large Kofun mound tombs?]” ref

“In the Kojiki, the people of Osaka (忍坂) (now Sakurai city) were “tsuchigumo (土雲) who have grown tails.” In the Hizen no Kuni Fudoki, there is an article writing that when Emperor Keiko made an imperial visit to Shiki island (志式島, Hirado island) (year 72 in the legends), the expedition encountered a pair of islands in the middle of sea. Seeing smoke rising from inland, the Emperor ordered an investigation of the islands, and discovered that the tsuchigumo Oomimi (大耳) lived on the smaller island, and Taremimi (垂耳) lived on the larger island. When both were captured and about to be killed, Oomimi and Taremimi lowered their foreheads to the ground and fell prostrate, and pleaded, “we will from now on make offerings to the emperor” and presented fish products and begged for pardon.” ref

“In the Bungo no Kuni Fudoki, there appeared many tsuchigumo, such as the Itsuma-hime (五馬姫) of Itsuma mountain (五馬山), the Uchisaru (打猴), Unasaru (頸猴), Yata (八田), Kunimaro (國摩侶), and Amashino (網磯野), of Negi field (禰宜野), the Shinokaomi (小竹鹿臣) of Shinokaosa (小竹鹿奥), and the Ao (青) and Shiro (白) of Nezumi cavern (鼠の磐窟). Other than these, there is also the story of Tsuchigumo Yasome (土蜘蛛八十女), who made preparations in the mountains to resist against the imperial court, but was utterly defeated.” ref

“Nor were the tsuchigumo were confined to eastern parts: According to writings in the Nihon Shoki, in the 12th year of emperor Keiko (year 82 in the legends), in winter, October, emperor Keiko arrived in Hayami town, Ookita (now Ooita), and heard from the queen of the land, Hayatsuhime (速津媛) that there was a big cave in the mountain, called the Nezumi cave, where two tsuchigumo, Shiro and Ao, lived. In Negino (禰疑野), Naoiri, they were informed of three more tsuchigumo named Uchizaru (打猿), Yata (八田), and Kunimaro (国摩侶, 国麻呂). These five had great amount of allies, and would not follow the emperor’s commands.” ref

By the 14th century, the period in which the Tsuchigumo Soushi (土蜘蛛草紙) was written, tsuchigumo appeared in the capital as yokai monsters. The commander Minamoto no Yorimitsu of the mid Heian era, known for the slaying of Shuten-doji, was brought by his servant Watanabe no Tsuna to go in the direction of Rendai field (蓮台野), a mountain north of Kyoto, where they encountered a flying skull. Yorimitsu and the others, who thought it was dubious, started to follow it, and arrived at an old estate, where there appeared various atypical yokai that agonized Yorimitsu and the others, and when dawn arrived, there appeared a beautiful woman who was about to trick them, but Yorimitsu, not giving it, cut it with his katana, and the woman disappeared, leaving white blood.” ref

“Pursuing that trail, they arrived at a cave in mountain recesses, where there was a huge spider, who was the true identity of all the monsters that appeared. At the end of a long battle, Yorimitsu cut off the spider’s head (depicted in the woodblock painting above), and the heads of 1990 dead people came out from its stomach. Furthermore, from its flanks, countless small spiders flew about, and investigating them further, they found about 20 more skulls. There are various theories to the story of the tsuchigumo, and in the Heike Monogatari, there is as following (they were written as 山蜘蛛). When Yorimitsu suffered from malaria, and lay on a bed, a strange monk who was 7 shaku (about 2.1 meters) tall appeared, released some rope, and tried to capture him. Yorimitsu, despite his sickness, cut him with his famous sword, the Hizamaru (膝丸), causing the monk to flee.” ref

“The next day, Yorimitsu led his Four Guardian Kings to chase after the blood trail of the monk, and arrived at a mound behind Kitano jinja where there was a large spider that was 4 shaku wide (about 1.2 meters). Yorimitsu and the others caught it, pierced it with an iron skewer, and exposed it to a riverbed. Yorimitsu’s illness left him immediately, and the sword that cut the spider was from then on called the Kumo-kiri (蜘蛛切り, spider-cutter).The true identity of this tsuchigumo was said to be an onryō or vengeful spirit of the aforementioned local clan defeated by Emperor Jimmu. This tale is also known from the very fifth noh, “Tsuchigumo.” ref

“What have we learnt about so far about the tsuchigumo? From all of the above accounts, the tsuchigumo earth spiders were clearly identified with opposing forces or groups of local native people that were being subdued by the Yamato rulers. They were often mountain inhabitants and they were associated with caves and rockcut tombs. They were “stone-pushers” and mound builders. There were also tsuchigumo who lived on distant remote islands.” ref

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Jorogumo, the demonic spider of Japanese folklore

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Jorogumo–‘The Whore Spider’

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“In Akan people folklore, Anansi (spider) is associated with stories, wisdom, knowledge, and trickery. Spider tales are found extensively throughout West Africa, but the Anansi tales from Ghana are believed to be the origin.” ref, ref

“Akan people are a Kwa group living primarily in present-day Ghana and in parts of Ivory Coast and Togo in West Africa. Many but not all of the Akan still practice their traditional matrilineal customs, living in their traditional extended family households. The traditional Akan economic and political organization is based on matrilineal lineages, which are the basis of inheritance and succession. A lineage is defined as all those related by matrilineal descent from a particular ancestress. Several lineages are grouped into a political unit headed by a council of elders, each of whom is the elected head of a lineage – which itself may include multiple extended-family households.” ref

“The political units above are likewise grouped (into traditionally seven) but as of today, eight larger groups called abusua: Aduana, Agona, Asakyiri, Asenie, Asona, Bretuo, Ekuona, and Oyoko. The members of each such abusua are united by their belief that they are all descended from the same ancient ancestress – so marriage between members of the same group (or abusua) is forbidden, a taboo on marriage. One inherits or is a lifelong member of, the lineage, the political unit and the abusua of one’s mother, regardless of one’s gender or marriage.” ref

“Members and their spouses thus belong to different abusuas, with mother and children living and working in one household, and their husband/father living and working in a different household. According to one source of information about the Akan, “A man is strongly related to his mother’s brother (wɔfa) but only weakly related to his father’s brother. This is perhaps viewed in the context of a polygamous society in which the mother/child bond is likely to be much stronger than the father/child bond. As a result, in inheritance, a man’s nephew (his sister’s son) (wɔfase) will have priority over his own son. Uncle-nephew relationships, therefore, assume a dominant position.” ref

“The principles governing inheritance, generation, and age – that is to say, men come before women and seniors before juniors.”… When a woman’s brothers are available, a consideration of generational seniority stipulates that the line of brothers be exhausted before the right to inherit lineage property passes down to the next senior genealogical generation of sisters’ sons. Finally, “it is when all possible male heirs have been exhausted that the females” may inherit. Certain other aspects of the Akan culture are determined patrilineally rather than matrilineally. There are ancestrally 12 patrilineal Ntoro (spirit) groups, and everyone belongs to his or her father’s Ntoro group, but not to his family lineage and abusua. Each Ntoro group has its own surnames, taboos, ritual purifications, and forms of etiquette. A person thus inherits one’s Ntoro from one’s father but does not belong to his family.” ref

“Akan people are believed to have migrated to their current location from the Sahara desert and Sahel regions of Africa into the forest region around the 11th century. Many Akans tell their history as it started in the eastern region of Africa as this is where the ethnogenesis of the Akan as we know them today happened. Oral traditions of the ruling Abrade (Aduana) Clan relate that Akans originated from the ground. They migrated from the north, they went through Egypt, and settled in Nubia (Sudan). Around 500 CE, due to the pressure exerted on Nubia by Axumite kingdom of Ethiopia, Nubia was shattered, and the Akan people moved to the west and established small trading kingdoms.” ref 

“Around 750 CE, these kingdoms grew into Awkar or Koumbi Saleh. 11th century Arab historian Al-Bakri wrote about this great kingdom based on accounts by Berber merchants, who often traded with these ancient Ghanaians. Because historians admit the origin of the Akan people is unknown, they don’t reject the Sudanese origin and maintain that oral tradition must also be considered. The ancestors of the Akan eventually left for Kong (i.e. present day Ivory Coast). From Kong they moved to Wam and then to Dormaa, located in present-day Bono Region of Ghana. The movement from Kong was necessitated by the desire of the people to find suitable savannah conditions since they were not used to forest life.” ref

“The Akan peoples mostly have seven Abusua (Matrilineal clans/tribes) in each state. They do not have the same names in each state but each has an equivalent clan (e.g. in Fante areas along the coast, the Asante clan of Oyoko is referred to as Dehyena or Yokofo). The clans are assigned States which they rule by their status as founders of that jurisdiction. The Ashanti Kingdom is ruled by the Oyoko Clan. However, the Bretuo or Twidanfo (in Fante), as well as other clans, rule States, Divisions, Towns, and Villages within the Kingdom. The Fante-speaking peoples usually have the Asona Clan ruling most of their States (like Mankessim). Certain sub-clans or lineages have exclusive rights to some stools within Akanland such as the lineage of Afia Kobi in the Oyoko Clan who alone sits on the Golden Stool of Asante.” ref

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Anansi is the West African spider related to Drums

“Anansi or Ananse (/əˈnɑːnsi/ ə-NAHN-see; literally translates to spider) is an Akan folktale character associated with stories, wisdom, knowledge, and trickery, most commonly depicted as a spider, in Akan folklore. Taking the role of a trickster, he is also one of the most important characters of West African, African American, and West Indian folklore. Originating in Ghana, these spider tales were transmitted to the Caribbean by way of the transatlantic slave trade. Anansi is best known for his ability to outsmart and triumph over more powerful opponents through his use of cunning, creativity, and wit. Despite taking on a trickster role, Anansi often takes center stage in stories and is commonly portrayed as both the protagonist and antagonist.” ref

Spider tales are found extensively throughout West Africa, but the Anansi tales from Ghana are seen to be the origin of these stories and are among the best-known, as Anansi’s name comes from the word in the Akan language for “spider”. They later spread to the West Indies, Suriname, Sierra Leone (where they were introduced by Jamaican Maroons) and the Netherlands Antilles; also Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire. Anansi is depicted in many different ways and with different names, from “Ananse”, “Kwaku Ananse”, and “Anancy”, to his New World iterations, such as “Ba Anansi”, “Kompa Nanzi” and/or “Nanzi”, “Nancy”, “Aunt Nancy”, and “Sis’ Nancy”, even though he is always depicted as a male in his stories.” ref

“While often depicted as an animal, Anansi has many representations, which include an anthropomorphic spider with a human face, or conversely, a human with spider-like features, such as eight legs. Anansi also has a family in several folktales involving him, consisting of his long-suffering wife Okonore Yaa – known in other regions as Aso, Crooky, or Shi Maria; Ntikuma, his firstborn son; Tikelenkelen, his big-headed son; Nankonhwea, his son with a spindly neck and spindly legs; finally, Afudohwedohwe, his pot-bellied son. Anansi also has a beautiful daughter named Anansewa in other tales, like those introduced in the work of Efua Sutherland: in Efua’s tale, he embarks on a mission to ensure that Anansewa can have an appropriate suitor.” ref

“It is said that Odomankoma (¿) is also known as Ananse Kokuroko (meaning Great Spider), who might be Ananse. But this could actually be chalked up to the two being relatives. It is said in some Akan myths that Ananse becomes the creator, so it could be either roles changing, similar to Bobowissi becoming the God of Lightning after Tano Akora‘s role is changed from the God of Lightning to the God of War after fighting with Owuo, or Odomankoma’s sunsum being reincarnated inside of Ananse after Owuo kills him, supported by how sunsum works (via the father). Anansi stories were part of an exclusively oral tradition, and Anansi himself was seen as synonymous with skill and wisdom in speech.” ref

“Stories of Anansi became such a prominent and familiar part of Ashanti oral culture that they eventually encompassed many kinds of fables, evidenced by the work of R.S. Rattray, who recorded many of these tales in both the English and Twi languages, as well as the work of scholar Peggy Appiah: “So well known is he that he has given his name to the whole rich tradition of tales on which so many Ghanaian children are brought up – anansesem – or spider tales.” In a similar fashion, oral tradition is what introduced Anansi tales to the rest of the world, especially the Caribbean, via the people that were enslaved during the Atlantic slave trade. As a result, the importance of Anansi socially did not diminish when slaves were brought to the New World.” ref

“Instead, Anansi was often celebrated as a symbol of slave resistance and survival, because Anansi is able to turn the tables on his powerful oppressors by using his cunning and trickery, a model of behavior used by slaves to gain the upper hand within the confines of the plantation power structure. Anansi is also believed to have played a multifunctional role in the slaves’ lives; as well as inspiring strategies of resistance, the tales enabled enslaved Africans to establish a sense of continuity with their African past and offered them the means to transform and assert their identity within the boundaries of captivity. As historian Lawrence W. Levine argues in Black Culture and Consciousness, enslaved Africans in the New World devoted “the structure and message of their tales to the compulsions and needs of their present situation” (1977, 90).” ref

“The Jamaican versions of these stories are some of the best-preserved because Jamaica had the largest concentration of enslaved Ashanti in the Americas. Akin to their Ashanti origins, each of these stories carries its own proverb at the end. At the end of the story “Anansi and Brah Dead”, there is a proverb that suggests that even in times of slavery, Anansi was referred to by his Akan original name: “Kwaku Anansi” or simply as “Kwaku” interchangeably with Anansi. The proverb is: “If yuh cyaan ketch Kwaku, yuh ketch him shut”, which refers to when Brah Dead (brother death or drybones), a personification of Death, was chasing Anansi to kill him; its meaning: The target of revenge and destruction, even killing, will be anyone very close to the intended, such as loved ones and family members.” ref

“However, like Anansi’s penchant for ingenuity, Anansi’s quintessential presence in the Diaspora saw the trickster figure reinvented through a multi-ethnic exchange that transcended its Akan-Ashanti origins, typified in the diversity of names attributed to these Anansi stories, from the “Anansi-tori” to the “Kuenta di Nanzi”. Even the character “Ti Bouki,” the buffoon constantly harassed by “Ti Malice” or “Uncle Mischief”, a Haitian trickster associated with Anansi, references this exchange: “Bouki” itself is a word descending from the Wolof language that also references a particular folk animal (the hyena) indigenous to them.” ref

“The same applies to Anansi’s role in the lives of Africans beyond the era of slavery; New World Anansi tales entertain just as much as they instruct, highlight his avarice and other flaws alongside his cleverness, and feature the mundane just as much as they do the subversive. Anansi becomes both an ideal to be aspired toward, and a cautionary tale against the selfish desires that can cause our undoing. Anansi has effectively evolved beyond a mere trickster figure; the wealth of narratives and social influences have thus led to him being considered a classical hero.” ref

How the Sky-God’s stories came to be Anansi’s stories

“This version of the most commonly-retold folktale was recorded by Rattray in his extensive book on Akan-Ashanti folktales, and as the tale generally goes, there were no stories in the world, as they were all held by the sky god Nyame. Anansi wanted Nyame’s stories and asked him to give them to him. Nyame did not want to give up his stories, even though the Spider insisted he could afford to pay for them. Unconvinced, Nyame then told Anansi that many great kingdoms like Kokofu, Bekwai, and Asumengya tried to buy the stories from him yet could not afford them; he then pondered how Anansi, completely insignificant in comparison, would succeed where they had failed.” ref

“Anansi, however, was not intimidated and promised he could afford them, asking Nyame their price. As a result, Nyame entertained Anansi’s offer, but nonetheless set a high price, hoping that it would be impossible for Anansi to accomplish the difficult labours that he devised for him: Anansi had to capture four of the most dangerous creatures in the world, namely the python Onini, hornets Mmoboro, leopard Osebo, and fairy Mmoatia. Undaunted, clever Anansi promised to bring Nyame those four things and even added his own mother Ya Nsia for extra measure. Nyame accepted his offer and advised him to begin his journey, so Anansi set about putting his schemes into motion.” ref

“First, Anansi went to his family and told them about his plan, including Ya Nsia. Then, he asked his wife Aso for advice, as he wished to capture Onini the Python first. Aso advised him to cut a branch from a palm tree and gather some string creeper vines. Anansi returned with them, and Aso told him to take them to the river where Onini lived nearby, pretending to argue with her to draw the Python’s attention. Anansi agreed with her plan and took them. He then pretended to debate with her in an imaginary argument over the length of Onini’s body while he headed there, pretending Aso had claimed Onini’s body was longer than the branch of a full-grown palm tree. Onini eventually heard Anansi pretending to argue with Aso, so he approached the Spider and asked Anansi what he was talking about.” ref

“Anansi explained and Onini (unaware of Anansi’s trickery) quickly agreed to help Anansi prove that he was longer than a palm tree branch. Thus, Anansi told the Python to stretch himself beside the branch Anansi had gathered and Onini then did so eagerly, unaware he had fallen into a trap. Anansi then took the string creeper vines he had gathered and tied up Onini completely. Anansi then lost no time in carrying Onini off to Nyame, mocking the Python along the way and informing him of his bargain with Nyame. Triumphant, Anansi soon arrived and presented Onini to Nyame; the Sky-God acknowledged Anansi’s accomplishment but reminded him that he still had other challenges, imagining in secret that Anansi would fail.” ref

“Next, Anansi returned home to Aso and informed her of what he had accomplished, deciding to capture the Mmoboro Hornets next. He asked her for advice, and his wife obliged, telling him to find a gourd and fill it with water. He was then to carry the gourd along with him to see the Hornets. Anansi followed her advice, heading toward the bush where the Hornets roamed in search of them. Soon, the Spider noticed a swarm of Hornets loitering near one, and he crept close to them, readying his gourd. Anansi then sprinkled some of his water at the Mmoboro Hornets, careful to save some for himself. The Spider then doused himself with the remaining water he had collected and cut a leaf from a Banana tree nearby, covering his head with it. Soon the Hornets flew to him in a fit, but Anansi showed them his banana leaf – still wet – and explained that it had been raining.” ref

“Clever Anansi then warned the Hornets that the rain was dangerous, suggesting that they could enter his gourd so that they would not be overcome. The Hornets agreed and thanked Anansi for helping them – unaware of his scheme – and they all flew inside, filling the gourd as they sought the shelter Anansi had promised them. Once all of them had entered, Anansi stoppered the mouth of the gourd and taunted them for succumbing to his scheme. The Spider told them of his plan to trade them to the Sky-God for his stories and took the Hornets to Nyame. Nyame accepted the Hornets, but reminded Anansi that he still had other tasks left in spite of his successes so far, certain the Spider still could not complete his task. He bade the Spider to continue his search, and Anansi left for home.” ref

“Anansi soon returned to Aso afterward and informed her of his success, then plotted against Osebo the Leopard with her. Aso told Anansi to dig a hole to catch Osebo and cover it; Anansi caught on to her plan immediately and told her it was enough. Then, he went to the place where Osebo normally could be found. Anansi dug a deep pit in the ground, covered it with brushwood, and decided to return home, knowing that Osebo would eventually stumble into the pit as night drew near. Sure enough, Anansi returned to the pit the next morning and found Osebo trapped inside of it. Anansi feigned sympathy and asked the Leopard why he was trapped inside; he asked Osebo if he had been drinking again, something Anansi had constantly warned the Leopard about, and the Spider continued his act, lamenting that he wanted to help Osebo but was certain that Osebo would attempt to eat him afterward. Osebo insisted that he would not harm Anansi, so the Spider agreed to help him.” ref

“Anansi went aside and cut two long sticks with his knife for the Leopard to climb out of the hole with and told Osebo to stretch his arms wide, secretly leaving the Leopard vulnerable. Osebo, unaware of yet another scheme by Anansi, then attempted to scale the sticks so that he could escape, but Anansi withdrew his knife again and tossed it at Osebo. The hilt of the knife struck Osebo’s head, and the Leopard fell down into the pit, now unconscious. Satisfied that his scheme had worked, Anansi gathered some additional sticks and formed a ladder, descending to the bottom of the pit to collect Osebo. Anansi then gloated just as he had before and told the Leopard about his bargain with Nyame, carrying him away to the Sky-God. Anansi then presented Osebo to Nyame when he arrived, and Nyame accepted Anansi’s gift. The Sky-God, however, was still not convinced that Anansi would succeed in completing his challenge, and reminded the Spider that he had yet to accomplish all of the tasks he was assigned.” ref

“The Spider returned home another time, deciding to capture Mmoatia the Fairy after some thought. Anansi then decided upon a plan and carved an Akua doll. Next, the Spider gathered the sap out of a gum tree, covering it until the Akua doll thus became very sticky, but Anansi was not done. He pounded some eto (mashed yams) collected by his wife Aso and covered the Akua doll’s hand with it; the Spider then gathered a basin and placed some eto inside of it. Once he had filled the basin, Anansi then took some of his silk and tied a string around the Akua doll’s waist so that he could manipulate it, heading off to the land of fairies once he had finished. Anansi placed the doll in front of an odum tree, a place where Fairies often congregated, and sat the basin with the eto in front of it as bait.” ref

“Anansi then hid behind the odum tree and waited for one of the Mmoatia to appear. Soon, one came, lured away from her sisters by the eto that the Spider had placed in front of the Akua doll. Enticed by the eto, Mmoatia asked the doll if she could have some of it. Anansi then tugged the Akua doll’s waist and it nodded its head in response, which made Mmoatia excited. Mmoatia returned to her sisters and asked if they would allow her to eat some, noting that she (completely unaware of Anansi’s trickery) had been offered some eto by the Akua doll. Mmoatia’s sisters allowed her to, so the Fairy returned to the basin and devoured the eto. When she had finished, Mmoatia thanked the Akua doll, but Anansi did not tug his string.” ref

“The Akua doll did not nod to acknowledge Mmoatia’s gratitude. Slightly upset, Mmoatia told her sisters what had happened and they advised her to slap the doll’s face as recompense. Mmoatia agreed and then slapped the Akua doll, but her hand became stuck. Angered, the Fairy informed them of what had happened, and another sister suggested that Mmoatia should slap the doll again, this time with her other hand. The Fairy obliged and tried again, only for her remaining hand to become stuck on the gum that covered the Akua doll. Mmoatia asked her sisters for help a final time, informing them that both her hands were now stuck.” ref

“Another sister told Mmoatia to bludgeon the doll with the rest of her body, certain that Mmoatia would be successful this time in punishing the Akua doll. However, the Fairy followed the advice of her sisters and only became stuck to the gum that covered the doll Anansi had laid in front of the Odum tree entirely. Anansi then emerged from hiding and used the rest of the string he had tied around his doll to bind Mmoatia with his string entirely. He then mocked Mmoatia also, just as he had done to the others he had captured before her and told the Fairy of his scheme to offer her to Nyame as well. However, Anansi still had another task he wished to complete before he returned to the Sky-God.” ref

Finally, Anansi headed to his home to visit his mother Ya Nsia, and reminded her of his agreement with the Sky-God to exchange her as part of the price for Nyame’s stories. Anansi’s mother complied with him, and the Spider then carried her alongside Mmoatia to Nyame, presenting both of them to Nyame to complete the bargain for the Sky-God’s stories. Nyame accepted both of them, thoroughly-impressed at the success of the Spider, and assembled a meeting within his kingdom. The Sky-God summoned his elders, the Kontire and Akwam chiefs, the Adontem general of his army’s main body, the Gyase, the Oyoko, Ankobea, and finally Kyidom, who led his rear-guard. Nyame then told them about the task Anansi had accomplished when none else – not even the greatest kingdoms – could afford his stories. Nyame recounted each of the creatures Anansi had presented the Sky-God with, as well as his own mother Ya Nsia, and allowed his audience to see each of these gifts for themselves.” ref

“Nyame finally acknowledged Anansi’s talents and told the Spider he now had the Sky-God’s blessings. The people rejoiced alongside Nyame as he then announced that his stories would no longer be known by his name or belong to him; from then on, the Sky-God’s stories would belong to Anansi, and all of them would be known as Spider stories for eternity. So it is that every story, no matter the subject or theme, is called a Spider story. There are substantial variants of this tale, with other retellings like Haley’s omitting Aso and Ya Nsia. Others, such as a Caribbean version, see Tiger as the one whom the stories come from. Another common version of this folktale portrays Mmoatia as a relatively solitary Fairy capable of turning invisible, while another does not require Anansi to capture Python.” ref

Why Anansi runs when he is on the surface of water

“One day, Kwaku Anansi went to Okraman the Dog and told him he wished to build a new village to live in. Okraman heard Anansi’s suggestion and agreed with it, and Anansi then explained his plan: Okraman was to collect a rope-creeper on the Monday following the next Sunday Adae. Anansi would do the same, and the two would then meet together. Anansi told Okraman that he would gather a gourd and fill it with water and wished the Dog to do so also; the pair would have water in case their destination lacked it. Okraman agreed again and the two both prepared once the Sunday Adae began; Anansi even put honey into his gourd for extra measure. Then, the two traveled the next Monday.” ref

“Okraman and Anansi had reached the half-way point on their journey when the two became exhausted, and the Dog recommended they both rest for a moment and drink some of the water they’d prepared. Then, Anansi suggested that they play a game to pass the time while they rested. Okraman asked the Spider which type of game he wished to play, and Anansi replied that he wished to play a binding game. Anansi then explained the rules of the game: Okraman would tie Anansi, and then Anansi would tie Okraman. Anansi would give Okraman a signal, and the Dog would try to escape his bindings. Okraman, however, wanted Anansi to tie him first. Anansi disagreed, scolding the Dog, and reminded Okraman that he was his elder, causing Okraman to accept Anansi’s terms in their game. Thus, the two began, and Okraman tied Anansi first.” ref

“However, Anansi did not know that Okraman was also hungry and had no true desire to play Anansi’s game. Instead, the Dog bound Anansi and carried him away, hoping to sell the Spider for food. Once Anansi realized Okraman’s plan, he began mourning, but the Dog paid him no mind, continuing to carry Anansi away until they both reached a stream. Soon, someone else noticed Anansi’s cries and came to investigate them: Odenkyem the Crocodile. He asked Okraman about the matter but the Dog was too frightened to respond. Instead, Okraman dropped Anansi and fled, while Odenkyem freed Anansi from his bindings. Anansi thanked the Crocodile and asked if there was a means he could repay him for his kindness, but Odenkyem said that he didn’t want anything in return. Yet, Anansi was insistent and told Odenkyem that if he had children he would come and style them, dressing their hair so that they could be very beautiful. Odenkyem accepted this, and did not suspect Anansi’s deception.” ref

“Anansi returned home after speaking to the Crocodile and told his wife Aso that he needed palm-nuts and onions for a stew he planned to make; he’d bring a crocodile back to supply meat for it. Aso did so, while Anansi gathered a knife, sharpening it. He mashed some eto, and carried it with him to the stream where Odenkyem lived. Next, Anansi called out to Odenkyem and told the Crocodile that he’d prepared a reward for him, sitting the eto in the water. Odenkyem heard Anansi and soon came, ready to accept Anansi’s gift. However, the Spider had tricked him; Anansi withdrew his knife and cut the Crocodile with it, but the blow he dealt to Odenkyem was not fatal; Anansi didn’t realize this however, and left for home without a second thought. Aso noticed Anansi didn’t have the crocodile he’d promised to bring home to prepare stew and asked him where it was, but Anansi became defensive, scolding his wife for bothering him when he’d just returned home. Aso, however, saw through Anansi’s attitude and told her husband that she could tell he had not gotten Odenkyem like he’d planned. Anansi could only remain silent, and said nothing else about the matter for the remainder of the evening.” ref

“Morning began and Aso told Anansi she was going to the river. The Crocodile was still laying there when she arrived, and flies now surrounded him; Aso took note of this, and told Anansi what she’d observed when she returned to their home. Anansi explained to Aso that he’d used a special medicine to kill Odenkyem and thus had to wait until the next day before he collected his kill; he then thanked her for confirming the crocodile had died and set about for the stream on his own, with a stick he’d prepared for defense. Anansi soon arrived and noticed Odenkyem was still laying in the riverbank. He carefully strode over to the Crocodile’s body, poking him with his stick. Then, Anansi prodded Odenkyem’s body and asked the Crocodile if he was dead, shifting his body over as he examined him, but Odenkyem did not respond. Little did Anansi know that the Crocodile may have been motionless, but he was far from deceased.” ref

“Anansi eventually stopped prodding the Crocodile with his stick, convinced he was dead, and edged closer to Odenkyem’s body, stretching his hand out to check the Crocodile a final time. Yet, Anansi’s action would prove to be a mistake, for he immediately found himself trapped between the Crocodile’s jaws when he clasped the Spider unexpectedly. After a great contest between the two, Anansi wiggled himself free from Odenkyem and fled the river, rushing back home. So it is that Anansi always runs while crossing the water, careful to never give Odenkyem another chance to capture him again.” ref

“Anansi shares similarities with the trickster figure of Br’er Rabbit, who originated from the folklore of the Bantu-speaking peoples of south and central Africa. Enslaved Africans brought the Br’er Rabbit tales to the New World, which, like the Anansi stories, depict a physically small and vulnerable creature using his cunning intelligence to prevail over larger animals. However, although Br’er Rabbit stories are told in the Caribbean, especially in the French-speaking islands (where he is named “Compair Lapin”), he is predominantly an African-American folk hero. The rabbit as a trickster is also in Akan versions as well and a Bantu origin doesn’t have to be the main source, at least for the Caribbean where the Akan people are more dominant than in the U.S. His tales entered the mainstream through the work of the American journalist Joel Chandler Harris, who wrote several collections of Uncle Remus stories between 1870 and 1906.” ref

“One of the times Anansi himself was tricked was when he tried to fight a tar baby after trying to steal food, but became stuck to it instead. It is a tale well known from a version involving Br’er Rabbit, found in the Uncle Remus stories and adapted and used in the 1946 live-action/animated Walt Disney movie Song of the South. These were derived from African-American folktales in the Southern United States, that had part of their origin in African folktales preserved in oral storytelling by African Americans. Elements of the African Anansi tale were combined by African-American storytellers with elements from Native American tales, such as the Cherokee story of the “Tar Wolf”, which had a similar theme, but often had a trickster rabbit as a protagonist.” ref

“The Native American trickster rabbit appears to have resonated with African-American story-tellers and was adopted as a cognate of the Anansi character with which they were familiar. Other authorities state the widespread existence of similar stories of a rabbit and tar baby throughout indigenous Meso-American and South American cultures. Thus, the tale of Br’er Rabbit and the Tar Baby represents a coming together of two separate folk traditions, American and African, which coincidentally shared a common theme. Most of the other Br’er Rabbit stories originated with Cherokee or Algonquian myths. In the USA today, the stories of Br’er Rabbit exist alongside other stories of Aunt Nancy, and of Anansi himself, coming from both the times of slavery and also from the Caribbean and directly from Africa.” ref

“Anansi is often depicted in popular tales interacting with the Supreme Being and other deities who frequently bestow him with temporary supernatural powers, such as the ability to bring rain or to have other duties performed for him. Some folkloric traditions portray Anansi as the son of the Earth Mother Asase Yaa. In others, Anansi is sometimes also considered an Abosom (lesser deity) in Akan spirituality, despite being commonly recognized as a trickster. Thus, Kwaku Anansi is similar to Legba, who is also both a trickster and a deity in West African Vodun. However, Akan spirituality writ-large does not generally consider Anansi as an Abosom to the same extent that other established African trickster deities are worshiped in their respective religions; his connection to the sacred is ultimately believed to be folkloric in regards to his importance in Akan society.” ref

“In essence, among the Akan, Anansi and his stories are folkloric creations used to convey moral truths and give anecdotal explanations for natural phenomena and occurrences. This is supported by his limited use outside of storytelling, including his absence as a totem animal. Nevertheless, those who do recognize Anansi in a religious context in Akan spirituality acknowledge him as the Obosom of wisdom; he is even said to have created the first inanimate human body, according to the scholar Anthony Ephirim-Donkor. In the New World on the other hand, alternative religious views of Anansi have greater prominence in addition to his role as a folkloric character; followers of Haitian Vodou, for example, honor him as a Guede Lwa. Anansi being a Guede Lwa is a little bit different from the average Lwa as he belongs to the Guede family of loa. The Guede family represents the concept of death and fertility. It is for this reason that many people call Anansi a Guede Lwa, as he is the one who is responsible for maintaining the many connections between the living beings of the known world and the spirits of those that have passed away.” ref

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Spider Woman – North America

“The web is a symbol among the Hopi of North America. It is Spider Woman’s symbol. She was present at the creation of the universe. She made human beings out of clay, life was created at sunrise. Important Hopi clans belong to Her.” ref 

Grandmother Spider: A Cherokee Tale

“Illustrated by Michael Auld (from his book “Ticky-Ticky’s Search: Travel to Turtle Island.” ref

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“A MURAL MENAGERIE: Harvard exhibit’s focus is on ancient American art.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Grandmother Spider: SPIDER WOMAN?

“Shell gorget pendants from ancient earthen mounds in Missouri, Illinois, and Tennessee.” ref

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The Mississippian Site of Origin for the So-Called Moundville Spider

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Moche Religious Sites: Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna in Trujillo

“Moche culture (100 to 800 CE): Spider Wall Art Imagery at “Huaca del Sol,” which was the largest of all the buildings on the site and is thought to be the largest pre-Columbian structure in Peru. The Moche built the Huaca de la Luna and Huaca del Sol, which are examples of how advanced the early civilizations of Peru were in their building techniques, art, and ceramics.” ref

“These were ceremonial structures for the ancient Moche culture built, in the Moche Valley as part of the ancient capital city called Cerro Blanco. The Moche culture flourished from around 100 CE to 800 CE, and at its height they built some monumental cities and temple structures. Little is known about the Moche as they had no written language, and what is known has been interpreted from their art and ceramics, which show scenes from their lives of hunting, fishing, fighting, sacrifice, and elaborate ritual ceremonies. Their cities, ceremonial centers, and temples were made of mud brick and, in my eyes, were most impressive. Tours out of Trujillo take you to both. The Huaca del Sol was the largest of all the buildings on the site and thought to be the largest pre-Columbian structure in Peru, but the Spanish actually diverted a river and destroyed 2/3rds of the temple looking for gold and other treasure.” ref

“What remains still stands magnificent against the blue sky. The archaeologists believe that Huaca del Sol was used mainly for administrative purposes and the burial of the rulers. Huaca de la Luna fared a little better, though. I imagine that it was because it was built up the side of a mountain called Cerro Blanco and thus not so easily ravaged. Still, a portion of the pyramid has been destroyed by looters, and so most work by archaeologists is being done on the central and Southern platforms. This temple is where religious ceremonies like the Warrior Narrative were performed, and it housed the religious elite and their burials. From the top of these platforms are dramatic views of the ancient city as it is being investigated by archaeologists and the fertile Moche Valley and River.” ref

Structure of temples

“The Moche, like the Maya, did not tear down their temples as they did new construction. They simply built over the old one, making it larger but leaving the exterior of the old one intact and, therefore, preserving a lot of the artwork and colors that covered them. On the outer walls of the older temples, you can see paintings, murals, and sculptured reliefs with their colors still intact. Murals and sculpted reliefs portraying spiders, fish, dragons, dogs, warriors, and their captives can still be seen at this site. I can’t imagine how much fear, reverence, and awe these temples must have inspired at the height of this culture in both the population and captives being brought into the city. They practiced human sacrifice, and it was performed around a formation of stone that was sacred to the Moche.” ref

A portion of the temple was actually built around this stone. When the area was excavated, there were hundreds of decapitated skeletons found there. Art from ceramic pieces (called the Warrior Narrative) found at other sites gives a glimpse into the ceremony that was performed here. It is conjectured that captive warriors either had their skulls crushed, their throats slit, or were decapitated, and then their bodies were thrown from the temple platform into this area containing the sacred stone formation.” ref

“Their primary god Ai-Apaec (Ayapec) is often referred to “The Decapitator” because he is depicted in a lot of their art when the full body is shown holding a decapitated head. The vast majority of representations of their god are of his head only. Ai-Apaec is actually a pre-Quechua word translated as “All-Knowing.” The art on the walls of the temple reminded me of Egypt in a way.” ref

“The temples were covered in paintings depicting their gods and the things that were important to them. There were also scenes of soldiers and their captives that looked almost identical to the paintings on the tombs of some of the Pharos of Egypt. During the tour of this temple, you will see many bricks with different marks on them. It is thought that the ruling and religious elite required that a certain number of bricks be made by the different clans that made up the population, and these marks were a way for them to account for the number supplied.” ref

“The Moche thrived for many centuries, but eventually, their culture came to an end. Archaeologists named the Moche people and culture after the primary archaeological site in the Moche River Valley. The latest theory holds that they were not conquered by another culture but succumbed to climatic changes and an internal war for scarce resources. Some also theorize that the Moche culture evolved into the Chimu, which built the amazing city of Chan Chan.” ref

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Moche Sun and Moon pyramids

“Ancient mural of a spider in the Huaca de la Luna in Trujillo, Peru.” ref

Spiders and spider decapitators in Moche iconography: identification from the contexts of Sipan, antecedents, and symbolism

“The tombs excavated at Sipán in the Lambayeque Valley contained representations of spiders and anthropomorphized spider beings. In this document, the iconography of spider representations from Cupisnique through Moche times in the northern and southern Moche regions is traced. It is argued that the spider represented is a North Coast orb-weaving spider that has a pattern on its abdomen resembling a human face. The spider was used as a metaphor for rain, ritual sacrifice, duality, and the cycle of life and death, perhaps even symbolizing a center or axis mundi uniting the two realms.” ref

Moche Anthropomorphized “Spider” Rattle

“Sipán lords were buried with crescent-shaped regalia, perhaps a reference to the blade of a ritual knife known as a tumi. The backflap (a type of body armor, suspended from the waist) and rattle here both depict an anthropomorphized spider whose paired legs form an X that extends from its body. Known as the Spider Decapitator, this fearsome creature brandishes a knife and a severed human head (another is incised at the base of the headdress’s crescent). Spiders catch prey in their webs and drain vital fluids—much like Moche warriors who captured their enemies, tied them with ropes, and drained their blood.” ref

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“Spider-Man Cave: Burnt Bluff Cultural Site located on the Garden Peninsula near Fayette, Michigan.” ref, ref

Spider Man Cave: The Desecration of Burnt Bluff Cultural Site 

Scientists Create Super-Strong Spider Silk That Heals Wounds

 There are three types of the Great Spirit thinking (to me):

1. Great Spirit (animistic type): “Great Mystery” likely no referred gender.
2. Great Spirit (totemistic/shamanistic type): “Great Spirit” is likely not fully seen as a god/goddess-type spirit, it could be an animal but may have male or female gender.
3. Great Spirit (paganistic type): “Great/High God” likely a male gender commonly related to the sun or blue/clear sky.

“Spiders To the Blackfoot, they represented intelligence and skillfulness. To the Osage American Indian tribe, spiders were a special symbol of patience and endurance. To the Blackfoot, they represented intelligence and skillfulness. The Ojibwe associated spider webs with their dream catchers, a type of traditional hand-woven Ojibwe craft meant to filter out bad dreams. Spiders were also highly regarded as providing the means to weave dreams and auspicious aspirations into reality. Maybe this is why to many Native Americans, it is still considered bad luck to kill a spider. It was considered good fortune to have a spider weave a web outside your window.” ref

“They called the female spiders ‘Grandmother’ because she kept and taught the mysteries of the past and how they would affect the future. The spider had the awareness to teach us how to use the written language with power and creativity, so that your words would weave a web around those who read them. (useful for a blogger) They say it is good to visualize a resplendent web that represents your deep past to bring order into the present. The intricate, fine detail on a spiderweb is truly a creative masterpiece and a sight to behold.” ref

“Associated with wisdom and divination, the spider serves as a channel of communication with the spirit world and, as such, its totem is also linked with leadership and rulers. Because the ground-dwelling tarantula  (earth spider) lives underground in spider silk-lined nests, it is thought to be closer to the realm of the dead who are buried in the earth. The spider’s ability to produce spider silk also places it in a special group of animals and insects that share skills with humans-in this case, the talent to spin or weave.” ref

“The highly creative web that the spider weaves has strands like the spokes of a wheel running in a straight line from the edge to a spiral in the middle. It is symbolic of an inner portal, more so because some have eight sectors, and are made by a spider who has eight legs and 8 eyes. This connects them to the ancient 8 sector Magic Square, long recognized by the ancient cultures of the Egyptians, Chinese, Druids, Mongolians and Peruvians to represent inner pathways and powers.
Spiders have a life span of only 3 years and tend to expire in late Autumn, so as to avoid another winter. This knowledge was useful when I came to my desk one cold morning and witnessed my spider friend draw up its legs into a symmetrical dying pose and calmly perform its final exit.” ref

Huichol traditional weaving practice

“The Huichol (Wixarika in their own language) are a tribe of Native Indians that live in the Sierra Madre mountains of western Mexico. They have preserved much of their culture and way of life into the present by moving to an isolated area high in the mountains, and by fighting against and resisting colonization and assimilation. They continue to speak their language, practice their own religion, make and wear their traditional clothes, and gather and grow their own foods.” ref

“Weaving knowledge has been passed down from grandmother to granddaughter since time immemorial. It’s a spiritual practice that is fundamental to Huichol female identity and culture. A woman will provide woven items for her family until she is no longer physically able. Then she will spin yarn for the younger women to weave. When she passes away her loom will be buried with her. Takutsi, the great creator goddess is a spinner and weaver, and also a helper to the weavers.” ref

“The steps taken in producing a woven textile are – preparing fibers, spinning yarn, laying the warp threads, stringing the loom, and weaving.  Huichol women employ a backstrap loom.  That is a flexible loom composed of strings of yarn and wooden parts. One end is tied around the woman’s back, and the other around a tree or post. Spindles and loom parts are hand carved from various trees that have spiritual power to help weavers communicate with the gods. Traditional fibers continue to be used in woven ceremonial offerings, but have been largely replaced by sheep’s wool in other weavings, although native cotton continues to be used widely.   Traditional vegetable dyes have largely been replaced by commercial dyes. The Huichol like the bright colors.  Women no longer weave blankets and clothes. They embroider factory made cloth, and weave belts, straps, and bags. The time and work previously spent in weaving larger textiles is now invested in finer weaving, double weave, and elaborate designs on smaller articles.” ref

“Girls start learning to process fibers that will be made into yarn or thread at about six year old. They remove seeds from cotton and save them for planting. They wash wool with soap in the river, then hang it to dry in the sun. They separate strands of acrylic yarn to be re-spun into finer yarn.  During these times, oral history is passed down to them. Spinning lessons begin about the same time. Both boys and girls help with making loom tools. By age 3 or 4 children are able to use knives and machetes. By 9 they are able to make tools from softwoods.  As young adults they carve the harder woods for loom bars, pickup sticks and battens.” ref

“Girls begin learning to string up small looms when very young.  Huichol girls learn to weave by watching and copying more experienced family members, and are supervised by their grandmothers. The first weaving project is a plain weave bag strap with a geometric design. By the time a girl reaches puberty she will have already learned to make all her clothes, embroider, and weave plain-weave fabrics.  She now must learn to create double-weave articles, beginning with belts which can be used around the waist, or as headbands, and are strong enough to be used as rope to secure animals. Then wide men’s belts and bags.” ref

“Apprenticeship to become a master artist is a five-year commitment. Usually, embroidery, beading, and weaving are learned together. Vows are made that must be fulfilled to complete the commitment. Single women must abstain from sex, and married women must abstain from extramarital sex for the entire duration. Guidance from the gods must be sought in dreams. A shaman must supervise the apprenticeship. He or she will give instructions concerning which gods, or helper spirits to rely on. Ceremonies and pilgrimages must be attended. The required offerings must be made – miniature looms and miniature weavings, as well as prayer arrows, beeswax candles, beaded gourd bowls, and the blood of sacrificed animals are left when asking for help and guidance. Plant allies such as peyote will be chosen as spirit guides. Animal allies (particularly reptiles) are also sought to help increase health, knowledge, ability, and personal power. Finally, the weaver must sponsor a ceremony that marks the completion of her initiation. If someone doesn’t complete her apprenticeship, she may get sick, or her family may suffer. Spiritual experience and expression are not separate from acquiring and expressing technical competence.” ref

“There are different types or classifications of designs. Some designs are learned or copied from previous weavings created by family members or ancestors, or seen in ceremonies, photographs, collections, or libraries. Peyote visions (patterns, colors, and figures) are believed to have much spiritual significance and are reproduced in artwork. Designs dreamed at night, then woven the next day, are believed to be gifts from the spirit world.  ‘Iyari’ (heart memory) designs come from the weaver’s inner self – her heart, her thoughts, her ancestral memory. Huichol women consider these weavings a part of themselves. “Designs are like portals into the supernatural world.” ref

“The Huichol make pilgrimages to holy places in the four corners of their land. They fast during these journeys, and bring sacred water and other spiritual medicines home. At Lake Chapala in the south, where Xapawiyemeka, the goddess of the lake dwells, offerings are weighted with a stone, then thrown in the lake. At the Pacific ocean, they immerse themselves in the water, pray, and leave offerings for the goddess Haramara. They travel to Utuawita, the sacred cave to the north in Durango. They travel to Wirikuta, the sacred land of peyote in the high desert of San Luis Potosi, to the east, to communicate with the deities and acquire sacred knowledge from them.” ref

“The pilgrimage to Wirikuta to collect peyote is the central event in the Huichol annual ceremonial cycle. The participants in the pilgrimage, the holy places where the pilgrims stop to leave offerings, and the actions undertaken in the peyote hunt are represented in the parts of the loom. Ut+anaka, the earth goddess, learned weaving in order to find the path to Wirikuta and make the first journey there. While the men are out hunting the deer, the women are praying, are in spiritual communication with the deer, calling on him to give himself to feed their people, creating a snare with their loom. Also,“women trap the soul of the deer and bring it to life in the form of woven designs”. Deer and peyote are two aspects of the same spirit. Similarly, every part of the loom has a corresponding object or action in the cultivation of corn. Deer, maize, and peyote, along with water, are the sources of life for the Huichol. “While weaving on the loom, women metaphorically hunt the deer, find the peyote, and plant the corn and help it to grow.” ref

“The Huichol (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈwit͡ʃo̞l]) or Wixárika (Huichol pronunciation: [wiˈraɾika]) are an indigenous people of Mexico and the United States living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango, as well as in the United States in the states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. They are best known to the larger world as the Huichol, although they refer to themselves as Wixáritari (“the people”) in their native Huichol language. The adjectival form of Wixáritari and name for their own language is Wixárika.” ref

“The Wixárika speak a language of the Wixarikan group that is closely related to the Nahuatl group. Furthermore, they have received Mesoamerican influences, which is reflected by the fact that Wixarika has features typical to the Mesoamerican language area. Their spirituality traditionally involves collecting and consuming peyote (Lophophora williamsii), a cactus that possesses hallucinogenic effects due to its psychoactive alkaloids, such as mescaline.” ref

“The Huichol language, Wixarika, is a Uto-Aztecan language (Corachol branch) related to Cora. Huichol words conform to four patterns according to their inflection: type I words, principally verbs, are inflected for person and mode, and type II words, principally nouns, are capable of being inflected for number and possession. Type III words include quantifiers and are inflected for case and optionally for gender and person. Type IV words are uninflected. Huichol major sentence types include transitive, intransitive, complemented transitive, and complemented. Complemented sentences contain object-like constituents, termed complements. True objects do not stand in cross-reference with any affix in the verbal. Complements include quotative phrases and direct objects of double transitive sentences. Huichol minor sentence types are vocatives and exclamations.” ref

“Huichols have traditionally believed that in rituals they interact with the primal ancestor spirits of fire, deer, and other elements of the natural world. “A newborn, separated from its umbilical cord, will still have … the agave plant where the cord was buried. When children grow up they need to obtain cuttings from their protector so that they can bury their children’s umbilical cords under them”. The “Huichol … keep … the souls of ancestors who have returned to the world in the shape of rock crystals.”  Their religion consists of four principal deities: the trinity of Corn, Blue Deer and Peyote, and the Eagle, all descended from their Sun God, “Tao Jreeku.” ref

“Most Huichols retain the traditional beliefs and are resistant to change.

• The “Huichol think that two opposed cosmic forces exist in the world : an igneous one represented by Tayaupá, “Our Father” the Sun, and an aquatic one, represented by Nacawé, the Rain Goddess”. “The eagle-stars, our Father’s luminous creatures, hurl themselves into the lagoons and … Nacawé’s water serpents … rise into the skies to shape the clouds”.

• “According to Huichol [belief], the Sun created earthly beings with his saliva, which appeared in the shape of red foam on the surface of the ocean’s waves.” “New things are born from “hearts” or essences, which the Huichol see in the red sea foam that flowed from Our Father the Sun … . The Sun itself has a “heart” that is its forerunner. It adopts the shape of a bird, the tau kúkai. The bird came out of the underworld and placed a cross on the ocean. Father Sun was born, climbed up the cross, … in this way killing the world’s darkness with his blows”.
• “Kacíwalí is … maize goddess. The wind carried her to the top of a mountain, which was given to her as a dwelling”. “Kacíwalí’s rain serpents are changed into fish”.
• “Komatéame is … goddess … of midwives. Both she and Otuanáka [another goddess] have tiny children in human shape, male and female”. “Stuluwiákame has the responsibility to give humans children, and Na’alewáemi … gives animals their young”. 
• Tatéi Kükurü ‘Uimari … Our Mother Dove Girl, who was also mother of the boy who became the Sun. 
• Tatéi Wérika … associated with the Sun and often depicted as a two-headed eagle. 
• Tatéi Niwetükame … patroness of children, who determines the sex of a child before it is born and gives it its soul (kupuri).” ref

“Like many indigenous American groups, Huichols have traditionally used the peyote (hikuri) cactus in religious rituals. Huichol practices seem to reflect pre-Columbian practices particularly accurately. These rituals involve singing, weeping, and contact with ancestor spirits. “It is Wirikuta, where the Huichol go each year to collect peyote.” “Before reaching Wirikúta, their final destination, they pass by the sacred springs of Tatéi Matiniéri (“Where Our Mother Lives”), the house of the eastern rain goddess. They cross steppes. The first one is the Cloud Gate; the second, Where the Clouds Open.” This pilgrimage takes place annually as a desire to return to where life originated and heal oneself. The Huichols assume roles of gods along the trail that they usually take by foot. Upon arrival in Wirikuta, the hunt begins and the first cactus that is found is shared among everyone. Then they harvest enough peyote for the year (since they only make the trip one time every year). After the work is done, they eat enough peyote (a hallucinogen) to have visions. Because of the visions and effects of the plant, the shaman is alleged by the Huichols to be able to speak to the gods and ensure the regeneration of the Huichols’ souls.” ref

“In traditional Huichol communities, an important ritual artifact is the nieli’ka: a small square or round tablet with a hole in the center covered on one or both sides with a mixture of beeswax and pine resin into which threads of yarn are pressed. Nieli’kas are found in most Huichol sacred places such as house shrines (xiriki), temples, springs, and caves. For the Huichol however, yarn painting is not only an aesthetic or commercial art form; the symbols in these paintings are sprung out of Huichol culture and its shamanistic traditions. From the small beaded eggs and jaguar heads to the modern detailed yarn paintings in psychedelic colors, each is related to a part of Huichol tradition and belief.” ref

“In more modern times they have been able to develop these art forms in ways they could not before. The colors and intricacy of the yarn and materials for beads are more readily available to make more detailed and colorful pieces of art. Previously, beaded art was made with bone, seeds, jade, ceramics, or other like materials when now the Huichols have access to glass beads of multiple colors. The modern yarn that Huichols use is woven much tighter and is thinner allowing for great detail and the colors are commercial allowing for much more variety. Before access to these materials in cities, Huichols used vegetable dyes.” ref 

Deep Weaving: indigenous Earth wisdom, mythology, and cosmology

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Clothing, Masks, and Weaving of the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest

Chilkat weaving

“Chilkat weaving, narrowly, the robes, or blankets, woven by the Chilkat, northernmost of the Pacific Coast Indians of North America. The Chilkat comprise a family within the Tlingit language group on the Alaskan coast between Cape Fox and Yakutat Bay. More generally, the term “Chilkat weaving” applies to any garment woven by these peoples. The Chilkat robe is roughly rectangular in shape, except for a V-shaped bottom side; fringe decorates the bottom and sides. Twine made from cedar bark forms the warp (vertical threads), and mountain goat or mountain sheep wool forms the weft (horizontal interlacing threads), a weave probably borrowed from the Tsimshian Indians. The colors—usually white, yellow, black, and blue or green—come from natural dyes. The designs on the earliest Chilkat robes were painted, but for the last two centuries, they have been woven into the fabric by Chilkat women, following designs painted on boards by the men.” ref

“As in many Native American groups, only men are permitted to create designs depicting living creatures. Women typically add abstract symbols that represent animals or spirits associated with the tribe to which the owner of the robe belongs. As in almost all of their art, the Indians of the Northwest Coast attempt to portray a three-dimensional object on a two-dimensional surface by presenting all of the different perspectives of the object. For example, progressing from left to right on a Chilkat robe would be a panel depicting the left profile of a whale, then a panel containing a head-on view, and finally a panel showing the right profile. Above this tripartite representation there might be an X-ray-like depiction of the inside of the whale. The artist indicates which animal he has woven into the robe by using key features, such as a long snout for a wolf or a short snout for a bear.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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 “The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period.” ref

Woven bark fiber mats made by Early Loom Technology

Think ancient Hunter-gatherers were unskilled and primitive?

Well, think again because they were downright amazing!

CHECK OUT THIS VIDEO: Primitive Technology: Woven bark fiber 

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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How to Make an Early (they call it a “Primitive”) Loom

John Hoopes  @KUHoopes – “I’d avoid the word “primitive.” Like the swastika, it has become irreversibly laden with horrible connotations. Other words to avoid: “jungle” and “civilization. The original meaning of “primitive” is “first,” with the implication of “creative” and “innovative.” I wish that could be recaptured, but you can’t change history. Note how it was originally used in this foundational book.”

My response, Great, I value your help. Thank you. I was not trying to put it down by adding its label of primitive but rather to show how amazing this loom is, that is labeled primitive. I was using the term listed in the link. As always, I appreciate your input. I will add your words and my response in the blog under my art.

Glen Parry  @glenparry8183 -“Could try, “early” or “horizontal”, as it seems to have been the first type adopted by most cultures?”

My response, Thanks, Glen, for your input. I do like early; that is better.

Balkan Woolen Home Woven Aprons and Other Archaic Folk Costume Elements

“The text gives examples of women’s woolen, home woven, aprons from the Balkan, and other archaic folk costume elements. In my opinion, aprons come from Neolithic times, Vinca culture, 5500-4500 BCE or 7,500 to 6,500 years ago, where they maybe were the cult object, attributes of the priestess. Today, they are still cult objects, but this time, they are the guardian of local cultural tradition and identity.” ref 

Ergane may refer to:

• Athena, as Athena Ergane, the patron goddess of craftsmen and artisans
• Ergane (spider), a genus of jumping spiders ref

As the patron of craft and weaving, Athena was known as Ergane.

“Athena, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly the city of Athens, from which she most likely received her name. The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is dedicated to her. Her major symbols include owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. In art, she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear.” ref

“From her origin as an Aegean palace goddess, Athena was closely associated with the city. She was known as Polias and Poliouchos (both derived from polis, meaning “city-state”), and her temples were usually located atop the fortified acropolis in the central part of the city. The Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis is dedicated to her, along with numerous other temples and monuments. As the patron of craft and weaving, Athena was known as Ergane. She was also a warrior goddess, and was believed to lead soldiers into battle as Athena Promachos. Her main festival in Athens was the Panathenaia, which was celebrated during the month of Hekatombaion in midsummer and was the most important festival on the Athenian calendar.” ref

“In Greek mythology, Athena was believed to have been born from the forehead of her father Zeus. In some versions of the story, Athena has no mother and is born from Zeus’ forehead by parthenogenesis. In others, such as Hesiod‘s Theogony, Zeus swallows his consort Metis, who was pregnant with Athena; in this version, Athena is first born within Zeus and then escapes from his body through his forehead. In the founding myth of Athens, Athena bested Poseidon in a competition over patronage of the city by creating the first olive tree. She was known as Athena Parthenos “Athena the Virgin”. In one archaic Attic myth, the god Hephaestus tried and failed to rape her, resulting in Gaia giving birth to Erichthonius, an important Athenian founding hero. Athena was the patron goddess of heroic endeavor; she was believed to have aided the heroes Perseus, Heracles, Bellerophon, and Jason. Along with Aphrodite and Hera, Athena was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the Trojan War.” ref

“She plays an active role in the Iliad, in which she assists the Achaeans and, in the Odyssey, she is the divine counselor to Odysseus. In the later writings of the Roman poet Ovid, Athena was said to have competed against the mortal Arachne in a weaving competition, afterward transforming Arachne into the first spider; Ovid also describes how Athena transformed her priestess Medusa and the latter’s sisters, Stheno and Euryale, into the Gorgons after witnessing the young woman being raped by Poseidon in the goddess’s temple. Since the Renaissance, Athena has become an international symbol of wisdom, the arts, and classical learning. Western artists and allegorists have often used Athena as a symbol of freedom and democracy.” ref

Athena is associated with the city of Athens. The name of the city in ancient Greek is Ἀθῆναι (Athȇnai), a plural toponym, designating the place where—according to myth—she presided over the Athenai, a sisterhood devoted to her worship. In ancient times, scholars argued whether Athena was named after Athens or Athens after Athena. Now scholars generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city; the ending –ene is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names. Testimonies from different cities in ancient Greece attest that similar city goddesses were worshipped in other cities and, like Athena, took their names from the cities where they were worshipped. For example, in Mycenae there was a goddess called Mykene, whose sisterhood was known as Mykenai, whereas at Thebes an analogous deity was called Thebe, and the city was known under the plural form Thebai (or Thebes, in English, where the ‘s’ is the plural formation). The name Athenai is likely of Pre-Greek origin because it contains the presumably Pre-Greek morpheme *-ān-.” ref

“Athena was originally the Aegean goddess of the palace, who presided over household crafts and protected the king. A single Mycenaean Greek inscription 𐀀𐀲𐀙𐀡𐀴𐀛𐀊 a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja appears at Knossos in the Linear B tablets from the Late Minoan II-era “Room of the Chariot Tablets”; these comprise the earliest Linear B archive anywhere. Although Athana potnia is often translated as “Mistress Athena”, it could also mean “the Potnia of Athana”, or the Lady of Athens. However, any connection to the city of Athens in the Knossos inscription is uncertain. A sign series a-ta-no-dju-wa-ja appears in the still undeciphered corpus of Linear A tablets, written in the unclassified Minoan language. This could be connected with the Linear B Mycenaean expressions a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja and di-u-ja or di-wi-ja (Diwia, “of Zeus” or, possibly, related to a homonymous goddess), resulting in a translation “Athena of Zeus” or “divine Athena”. Similarly, in the Greek mythology and epic tradition, Athena figures as a daughter of Zeus (Διός θυγάτηρ; cfr. Dyeus). However, the inscription quoted seems to be very similar to “a-ta-nū-tī wa-ya“, quoted as SY Za 1 by Jan Best. Best translates the initial a-ta-nū-tī, which is recurrent in line beginnings, as “I have given.” ref

“A Mycenean fresco depicts two women extending their hands towards a central figure, who is covered by an enormous figure-eight shield; this may depict the warrior-goddess with her palladium, or her palladium in an aniconic representation. In the “Procession Fresco” at Knossos, which was reconstructed by the Mycenaeans, two rows of figures carrying vessels seem to meet in front of a central figure, which is probably the Minoan precursor to Athena. The early twentieth-century scholar Martin Persson Nilsson argued that the Minoan snake goddess figurines are early representations of Athena. Nilsson and others have claimed that, in early times, Athena was either an owl herself or a bird goddess in general. In the third book of the Odyssey, she takes the form of a sea-eagle. Proponents of this view argue that she dropped her prophylactic owl mask before she lost her wings. “Athena, by the time she appears in art,” Jane Ellen Harrison remarks, “has completely shed her animal form, has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes, but occasionally in black-figure vase-paintings she still appears with wings.” ref

“It is generally agreed that the cult of Athena preserves some aspects of the Proto-Indo-European transfunctional goddess. The cult of Athena may have also been influenced by those of Near Eastern warrior goddesses such as the East Semitic Ishtar and the Ugaritic Anat, both of whom were often portrayed bearing arms. Classical scholar Charles Penglase notes that Athena resembles Inanna in her role as a “terrifying warrior goddess” and that both goddesses were closely linked with creation. Athena’s birth from the head of Zeus may be derived from the earlier Sumerian myth of Inanna’s descent into and return from the Underworld.” ref

“Plato notes that the citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped a goddess known as Neith, whom he identifies with Athena. Neith was the ancient Egyptian goddess of war and hunting, who was also associated with weaving; her worship began during the Egyptian Pre-Dynastic period. In Greek mythology, Athena was reported to have visited mythological sites in North Africa, including Libya’s Triton River and the Phlegraean plain. Based on these similarities, the Sinologist Martin Bernal created the “Black Athena” hypothesis, which claimed that Neith was brought to Greece from Egypt, along with “an enormous number of features of civilization and culture in the third and second millennia.” ref

“The “Black Athena” hypothesis stirred up widespread controversy near the end of the twentieth century, but it has now been widely rejected by modern scholars. Athena was also the goddess of peace. In a similar manner to her patronage of various activities and Greek cities, Athena was thought to be a “protector of heroes” and a “patron of art” and various local traditions related to the arts and handicrafts. Athena was known as Atrytone (Άτρυτώνη “the Unwearying”), Parthenos (Παρθένος “Virgin”), and Promachos (Πρόμαχος “she who fights in front”). The epithet Polias (Πολιάς “of the city”), refers to Athena’s role as protectress of the city.” ref

“The epithet Ergane (Εργάνη “the Industrious”) pointed her out as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. Burkert notes that the Athenians sometimes simply called Athena “the Goddess”, hē theós (ἡ θεός), certainly an ancient title. After serving as the judge at the trial of Orestes in which he was acquitted of having murdered his mother Clytemnestra, Athena won the epithet Areia (Αρεία). Some have described Athena, along with the goddesses Hestia and Artemis as being asexual, this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5, To Aphrodite, where Aphrodite is described as having “no power” over the three goddesses.” ref

“Athena was sometimes given the epithet Hippia (Ἵππια “of the horses”, “equestrian”), referring to her invention of the bit, bridle, chariot, and wagon. The Greek geographer Pausanias mentions in his Guide to Greece that the temple of Athena Chalinitis (“the bridler”) in Corinth was located near the tomb of Medea‘s children. Other epithets include Ageleia, Itonia, and Aethyia, under which she was worshiped in Megara. She was worshipped as Assesia in Assesos. The word aíthyia (αἴθυια) signifies a “diver”, also some diving bird species (possibly the shearwater) and figuratively, a “ship”, so the name must reference Athena teaching the art of shipbuilding or navigation.” ref

“She was the daughter of Zeus, produced without a mother, and emerged full-grown from his forehead. There was an alternate story that Zeus swallowed Metis, the goddess of counsel, while she was pregnant with Athena, and when she was fully grown, she emerged from Zeus’ forehead. Being the favorite child of Zeus, she had great power. In the classical Olympian pantheon, Athena was regarded as the favorite child of Zeus, born fully armed from his forehead. The story of her birth comes in several versions. The earliest mention is in Book V of the Iliad, when Ares accuses Zeus of being biased in favor of Athena because “autos egeinao” (literally “you fathered her”, but probably intended as “you gave birth to her”).” ref

“She was essentially urban and civilized, the antithesis in many respects of Artemis, goddess of the outdoors. Athena was probably a pre-Hellenic goddess and was later taken over by the Greeks. In the version recounted by Hesiod in his Theogony, Zeus married the goddess Metis, who is described as the “wisest among gods and mortal men”, and engaged in sexual intercourse with her. After learning that Metis was pregnant, however, he became afraid that the unborn offspring would try to overthrow him, because Gaia and Ouranos had prophesied that Metis would bear children wiser than their father. In order to prevent this, Zeus tricked Metis into letting him swallow her, but it was too late because Metis had already conceived. A later account of the story from the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, written in the second century AD, makes Metis Zeus’s unwilling sexual partner, rather than his wife. According to this version of the story, Metis transformed into many different shapes in effort to escape Zeus, but Zeus successfully raped her and swallowed her.” ref

“After swallowing Metis, Zeus took six more wives in succession until he married his seventh and present wife, Hera. Then Zeus experienced an enormous headache. He was in such pain that he ordered someone (either Prometheus, Hephaestus, Hermes, Ares, or Palaemon, depending on the sources examined) to cleave his head open with the labrys, the double-headed Minoan axe. Athena leaped from Zeus’s head, fully grown and armed. The “First Homeric Hymn to Athena” states in lines 9–16 that the gods were awestruck by Athena’s appearance, and even Helios, the god of the sun, stopped his chariot in the sky. Pindar, in his “Seventh Olympian Ode”, states that she “cried aloud with a mighty shout” and that “the Sky and mother Earth shuddered before her.” ref

“Hesiod states that Hera was so annoyed at Zeus for having given birth to a child on his own that she conceived and bore Hephaestus by herself, but in Imagines 2. 27 (trans. Fairbanks), the third-century CE Greek rhetorician Philostratus the Elder writes that Hera “rejoices” at Athena’s birth “as though Athena were her daughter also.” The second-century CE Christian apologist Justin Martyr takes issue with those pagans who erect at springs images of Kore, whom he interprets as Athena: “They said that Athena was the daughter of Zeus not from intercourse, but when the god had in mind the making of a world through a word (logos) his first thought was Athena.” According to a version of the story in a scholium on the Iliad (found nowhere else), when Zeus swallowed Metis, she was pregnant with Athena by the Cyclops Brontes. The Etymologicum Magnum instead deems Athena the daughter of the Daktyl Itonos. Fragments attributed by the Christian Eusebius of Caesarea to the semi-legendary Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, which Eusebius thought had been written before the Trojan war, make Athena instead the daughter of Cronus, a king of Byblos who visited “the inhabitable world” and bequeathed Attica to Athena.” ref

Artemis was one of the three major virgin goddesses, alongside Athena and Hestia.

“The name “Artemis” (n., f.) is of unknown or uncertain etymology, although various sources have been proposed. R.S.P. Beekes suggested that the e/i interchange points to a Pre-Greek origin. Artemis was venerated in Lydia as Artimus. Georgios Babiniotis, while accepting that the etymology is unknown, also states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of pre-Greek origin.” ref

“The name may be related to Greek árktos “bear” (from PIE *h₂ŕ̥tḱos), supported by the bear cult the goddess had in Attica (Brauronia) and the Neolithic remains at the Arkoudiotissa Cave, as well as the story of Callisto, which was originally about Artemis (Arcadian epithet kallisto); this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo-European cultures (e.g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshipped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested, the earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek 𐀀𐀳𐀖𐀵, a-te-mi-to /Artemitos/ (gen.) and 𐀀𐀴𐀖𐀳, a-ti-mi-te /Artimitei/ (dat.), written in Linear B at Pylos.” ref

“According to J.T. Jablonski, the name is also Phrygian and could be “compared with the royal appellation Artemas of Xenophon“. Charles Anthon argued that the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from *arta, *art, *arte, all meaning “great, excellent, holy”, thus Artemis “becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshiped at Ephesus”. Anton Goebel “suggests the root στρατ or ῥατ, ‘to shake’, and makes Artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter”. Ancient Greek writers, by way of folk etymology, and some modern scholars, have linked Artemis (Doric Artamis) to ἄρταμος, artamos, i.e. “butcher” or, like Plato did in Cratylus, to ἀρτεμής, artemḗs, i.e. “safe”, “unharmed”, “uninjured”, “pure”, “the stainless maiden”. A.J. van Windekens tried to explain both ἀρτεμής and Artemis from ἀτρεμής, atremḗs, meaning “unmoved, calm; stable, firm” via metathesis.” ref

“Artemis is presented as a goddess who delights in hunting and punishes harshly those who cross her. Artemis’ wrath is proverbial, and represents the hostility of wild nature to humans. Homer calls her πότνια θηρῶν, “the mistress of animals”, a title associated with representations in art going back as far as the Bronze Age, showing a woman between a pair of animals. Artemis carries with her certain functions and characteristics of a Minoan form whose history was lost in the myths. Artemis was one of the most popular goddesses in Ancient Greece. The most frequent name of a month in the Greek calendars was Artemision in Ionic, territories Artemisios or Artamitios in the Doric and Aeolic territories and in Macedonia. Also Elaphios in Elis, Elaphebolion in Athens, Iasos, Apollonia of Chalkidice, and Munichion in Attica. In the calendars of Aetolia, Phocis and Gytheion there was the month Laphrios and in Thebes, Corcyra, and Byzantion the month Eucleios. The goddess was venerated in festivals during spring.” ref

“In some cults she retains the theriomorphic form of a Pre-Greek goddess who was conceived with the shape of a bear (άρκτος árktos: bear). Kallisto in Arcadia is a hypostasis of Artemis with the shape of a bear, and her cults at Brauron and at Piraeus (Munichia) are remarkable for the arkteia where virgin girls before marriage were disguised as she-bears. The ancient Greeks called potnia theron the representation of the goddess between animals; on a Greek vase from circa 570 BCE, a winged Artemis stands between a spotted panther and a deer. “Potnia theron” is very close to the daimons and this differentiates her from the other Greek divinities. This is the reason that Artemis was later identified with Hecate, since the daimons were tutelary deities. Hecate was the goddess of crossroads, and she was the queen of the witches.” ref

“Artemis is rooted to the less developed personality of the Mycenean goddess of nature. The goddess of nature was concerned with birth and vegetation and had certain chthonic aspects. The Mycenean goddess was related to the Minoan mistress of the animals, who can be traced later in local cults, however we do not know to what extent we can differentiate the Minoan from the Mycenean religion. Artemis carries with her certain functions and characteristics of a Minoan form whose history was lost in the myths. According to the beliefs of the first Greeks in Arcadia, Artemis is the first nymph, a divinity of free nature. She was a great goddess, and her temples were built near springs, marshes, and rivers where the nymphs live, and they are appealed to by the pregnant women.” ref

“In Greek religion, we must see less tractable elements which have nothing to do with the Olympians but come from an old, less organized world–exorcisms, rituals to raise crops, gods and goddesses conceived not quite in human shape. Some cults of Artemis retained the pre-Greek features, which were consecrated by immemorial practices and connected with daily tasks. Artemis shows sometimes the wild and darker side of her character and can bring immediate death with her arrows, however she embodies the idea of “the free nature” which was introduced by the first Greeks. The Dorians came later in the area, probably from Epirus, and the goddess of nature was mostly interpreted as a vegetation goddess who was related to the ecstatic Minoan tree-cult.” ref

“She was worshipped in orgiastic cults with lascivious and sometimes obscene dances, which have pure Greek elements introduced by the Dorians. The feminine (sometimes male) dancers wore usually masks, and they were famous in the antiquity. The great popularity of Artemis corresponds to the Greek belief in freedom and she is mainly the goddess of women in a patriarchal society. The goddess of free nature is an independent woman and does not need a partner. Artemis is frequently depicted carrying a torch and she was occasionally identified with Hecate. Like other Greek deities, she had a number of other names applied to her, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the goddess.” ref

“Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece. Her best known cults were on the island of Delos (her birthplace), in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus), and in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows and accompanied by a deer. The ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign. Pre-pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as arktoi, or little she-bears.” ref

Handicraft

“A handicraft is a traditional main sector of craft making and applies to a wide range of creative and design activities that are related to making things with one’s hands and skill, including work with textiles, moldable and rigid materials, paper, plant fibers, clay, etc. One of the oldest handicraft is Dhokra; this is a sort of metal casting that has been used in India for over 5,000 years and is still used. Handicraft has its roots in the rural crafts—the material-goods necessities—of ancient civilizations, and many specific crafts have been practiced for centuries, while others are modern inventions or popularizations of crafts which were originally practiced in a limited geographic area. Many handcrafters use natural, even entirely indigenous, materials while others may prefer modern, non-traditional materials, and even upcycle industrial materials. Like folk art, handicraft output often has cultural and/or religious significance, and increasingly may have a political message as well, as in craftivism.” ref 

“A spindle is a straight spike, usually made from wood, used for spinning, twisting fibers such as wool, flax, hemp, cotton into yarn. It is often weighted at either the bottom, middle, or top, commonly by a disc or spherical object called a whorl; many spindles, however, are weighted simply by thickening their shape towards the bottom, e.g. Orenburg and French spindles. The spindle may also have a hook, groove, or notch at the top to guide the yarn. Spindles come in many different sizes and weights depending on the thickness of the yarn one desires to spin. The origin of the first wooden spindle is lost to history because the materials did not survive. Whorl-weighted spindles date back at least to Neolithic times; spindle whorls have been found in archaeological digs around the world.” ref

“A spindle is also part of traditional spinning wheels where it is horizontal, such as the Indian charkha and the great or walking wheel. The spindle is closely associated with many goddesses, including the Germanic Holda, Greek Artemis and Athena. It is often connected with fate, as the Greek Fates and the Norse Norns work with yarns that represent lives. In the Christianity, the apocryphal Gospel of James portrays the Virgin Mary as spinning thread for the Temple Curtain when the angel Gabriel tells her that she is going to bear Jesus.” ref

“The world’s oldest sewing needle has been discovered in Siberia’s Denisova Cave, and it doesn’t look like it was made by Homo sapiens. According to the Siberian Times, the little needle was likely created by an extinct species of human known as the Denisovans. The needle is made of an unidentified bird bone, measuring just under three inches long, and is thought to date back some 50,000 years. It even has an eye carved in the top through which to string thread. As the article points out, it’s probably still usable today.  Researchers in the Denisova Cave have previously found sewing needles in their excavations, but none as old as this one. While the cave is remarkable for showing signs of habitation from at least three distinct species of human (genus Homo), including Neanderthals, and modern humans, the needle is thought to have been the work of the Denisovan species.” ref

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20,000-year-old sewing needles from the Inya River in southwestern Siberia are impressive. But by 76,000 years ago, anthropologists believe that Homo sapiens were creating bone awls, a precursor to the needle, in South Africa. The very earliest evidence for clothing fabrication comes from an unlikely source: lice. Between 80,000 and 100,000 years ago, head and body lice became separate species. “This is an indication that individuals started wearing skins,” says Sarah Wurz, an anthropologist at the University of the Witwatersrand, who was not associated with the d’Errico study. “The lice lived in these, and therefore evolved into a separate species.” ref

“The researchers found that humans developed eyed sewing needles in what is now Siberia and China as early as 45,000 years ago. In Europe, clothing fabrication likely began around 26,000 years ago; it probably began some 13,000 years ago in North America. In addition, d’Errico and his colleagues uncovered evidence of extensive production sites for needles and garments. For example, at a site in the northern deserts of China, researchers extracted needles that were more than 10,000 years old, along with tools that may have aided their creation. Some of the needles are wide and flat, perhaps used to stitch thick hides. Others are narrow and circular, which may indicate they were used for delicate work such as embroidery.” ref

“The researchers also discovered that some of the world’s most sophisticated early stitch work may have come from North America. Sites in eastern Wyoming and central Washington yielded 13,000-year-old needles that have a striking level of refinement and suggest what the researchers call a “never previously achieved mastery” in needle production. The incredible diversity of needle types, which differed by region, exhibited varied forms, and evolved over time, suggests two things. First, multiple societies created them independently. Second, people within these societies had tools to create different types of garments, which may have had cultural or aesthetic significance.” ref

“In Western Europe, for instance, where anthropologists believe distinctive groups of humans frequently interacted, needle styles varied by site, suggesting dressing style might have delineated tribal affiliation. There’s other evidence for decorative dress in the Upper Paleolithic. For example, in a previous project, d’Errico and his colleague Marian Vanhaeren, an anthropologist at the University of Bordeaux, identified shells on the remains of a child in the Madeleine Cave in France, a site they attribute to the late Magdalenian period, around 10,000 years ago. Tiny holes hint that someone stitched these ornaments to the child’s clothing, though the textile itself has since disintegrated.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Weaving and the Shamanic Drum: Making The Shamanic Drum 

“The oldest provable Drums are the Alligator drums of Ancient China. They are a type of drum once used in Neolithic China, made from clay and alligator hides, found over a broad area at the Neolithic sites from modern Shandong in the east to Qinghai in the west, dating to a period of 5500–2350 BCE or 7,500 to 4,350 years ago. During the Archaic period, alligators probably lived along the east coast of China, including southern Shandong. The earliest alligator drums, comprising a wooden frame covered with alligator skin, are found in the archaeological sites at Dawenkou, as well as several sites of Longshan. In literary records, drums manifested shamanistic characteristics and were often used in ritual ceremonies. Drums covered with alligator skin for ceremonial use are mentioned in the Shijing.” ref

ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref, ref

(Drums in Shamanism, maybe older)

Some Paleolithic Batons from 23,000 to 12,000 years ago are/maybe Shaman Drumsticks like Those Used with Sami Shaman Drums?

Did shamans always play the drum? Tracking down prehistoric shamanism in Central Asia

“The most convincing traits of shamanic symbolism, which characterizes Central Asian tradition, can be deciphered in the art dated to four thousand years.” ref

“Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp, and the lateral threads are the weft, woof, or filling. The method in which these threads are interwoven affects the characteristics of the cloth. Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band that meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods, including tablet weaving, back strap loom, or other techniques that can be done without looms.” ref

“There are some indications that weaving was already known in the Paleolithic Era, as early as 27,000 years ago. An indistinct textile impression has been found at the Dolní Věstonice site. According to the find, the weavers of the Upper Palaeolithic were manufacturing a variety of cordage types, producing plaited basketry and sophisticated twined and plain woven cloth. The artifacts include imprints in clay and burned remnants of cloth. The oldest known textiles found in the Americas are remnants of six finely woven textiles and cordage found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru. The weavings, made from plant fibres, are dated between 10,100 and 9080 BCE.” ref

“In 2013, a piece of cloth woven from hemp was found in burial F. 7121 at the Çatalhöyük site, suggested to be from around 7000 BCE. Further finds come from the Neolithic civilization preserved in the pile dwellings in Switzerland. Another extant fragment from the Neolithic was found in Fayum, at a site dated to about 5000 BCE. This fragment is woven at about 12 threads by 9 threads per centimeter in a plain weave. Flax was the predominant fiber in Egypt at this time (3600 BCE) and had continued popularity in the Nile Valley, though wool became the primary fiber used in other cultures around 2000 BCE.” ref

“The oldest-known weavings in North America come from the Windover Archaeological Site in Florida. Dating from 4900 to 6500 BCE and made from plant fibres, the Windover hunter-gatherers produced “finely crafted” twined and plain weave textiles. Eighty-seven pieces of fabric were found associated with 37 burials. Researchers have identified seven different weaves in the fabric. One kind of fabric had 26 strands per inch (10 strands per centimetre). There were also weaves using two-strand and three-strand wefts. A round bag made from twine was found, as well as matting. The yarn was probably made from palm leaves. Cabbage palm, saw palmetto, and scrub palmetto are all common in the area, and would have been so 8,000 years ago.” ref

“Evidence of weaving as a commercial household industry in the historical region of Macedonia has been found at the Olynthus site. When the city was destroyed by Philip II in 348 BCE, artifacts were preserved in the houses. Loomweights were found in many houses, enough to produce cloth to meet the needs of the household, but some of the houses contained more loomweights, enough for commercial production, and one of the houses was adjacent to the agora and contained three shops where many coins were found. It is probable that such homes were engaged in commercial textile manufacture.” ref

Weaving in Mythology: Creating Fate and Fantastic Images

“Where crafts appear within stories and folk tales, they’re often more than just a craft. Weaving in mythology and legend tied into ideas around fate and creation. Take ancient Egypt. Some consider Neith to be the first creator of ancient Egypt (though Ptah, the god of smiths we briefly met last week, also held this title). She was the goddess of, among other things: weaving, water, mothers and childbirth, wisdom, hunting, and fate. Neith is one of ancient Egypt’s oldest deities, though the earliest depictions focus on her warlike aspects. The Greeks absorbed the Egyptian myths and identified her with Athena (also a goddess of weaving, wisdom, and war). And speaking of Athena…let’s delve into our first tale of weaving in mythology. We’ll start off in ancient Greece, move to the Norse pantheon, swing by to meet the Lady of Shalott, and finish up with ‘The Emperor’s New Clothes.” ref

“The ancient Greeks had several myths that involved weaving – and we’ll cover one about spinning next week. Perhaps the most famous involved a talented young weaver named Arachne. All who saw her work considered her a marvel. Arachne eventually boasted she was a better weaver than Athena, the goddess of weaving herself. One day, Athena appeared in Arachne’s dwelling to take up the challenge. During the competition, she weaves cautionary images of what happens when the mortals challenge the gods. Arachne weaves images of the gods taking advantage of mortals – hardly the most sensitive subject matter. Athena erupted in anger when she saw Arachne’s finished work. Some say Athena was furious that Arachne was better. Others point out that Athena was enraged by Arachne’s presumption and disrespect of the gods. Either way, Arachne was done for. In some versions of the myth, Athena turns Arachne into a spider out of spite.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Picturing Ixchel, the Mayan Goddess of Weaving

“Ixchel or Ix Chel is the 16th-century name of the aged jaguar goddess of midwifery and medicine in ancient Maya culture. She corresponds to Toci, an Aztec earth goddess inhabiting the sweatbath. She is related to another Aztec goddess invoked at birth, viz. Cihuacoatl (or Ilamatecuhtli). In Taube‘s revised Schellhas-Zimmermann classification of codical deities, Ixchel corresponds to the Goddess O. In the 1500s, Diego de Landa called Ixchel “the Goddess of making children”. He also mentioned her as the goddess of medicine, as shown by the following. In the month of Zip, the feast Ihcil Ixchel was celebrated by the physicians and shamans (hechiceros), and divination stones as well as medicine bundles containing little idols of “the Goddess of medicine whom they called Ixchel” were brought forward. In the Ritual of the Bacabs, Ixchel is once called “grandmother.” ref

“In their combination, the goddess’s two principal domains (birthing and healing) suggest an analogy with the aged Aztec goddess of midwifery, Toci. Ixchel was already known to the Classical Maya. As Taube has demonstrated, she corresponds to Goddess O of the Dresden Codex, an aged woman with jaguar ears. A crucial piece of evidence in his argument is the so-called “Birth Vase”, a Classic Maya container showing a childbirth presided over by various old women, headed by an old jaguar Goddess, the codical Goddess O; all have weaving implements in their headdresses. On another Classic Maya vase, Goddess O is shown acting as a physician, further confirming her identity as Ixchel. The combination of Ixchel with several aged midwives on the Birth Vase recalls the Tzʼutujil assembly of midwife goddesses called the “female lords”, the most powerful of whom is described as being particularly fearsome.” ref

“The name Ixchel was in use in 16th-century Yucatán and amongst the Poqom in the Baja Verapaz. Its meaning is not certain. Assuming that the name originated in Yucatán, chel could mean “rainbow“. Her glyphic names in the (Post-Classic) codices have two basic forms, one a prefix with the primary meaning of “red” (chak) followed by a portrait glyph (“pictogram“), the other one logosyllabic. Ix Chel’s Classic name glyph remains to be identified. It is quite possible that several names were in use to refer to the goddess, and these need not necessarily have included her late Yucatec and Poqom name. Her codical name is now generally rendered as “Chak Chel.” ref

“In the past, it was common to take Ix Chel as the Yucatec name of the moon goddess because of a shared association with human fertility and procreation. The identification is questionable, however, since (1) colonial and ethnographical sources provide no direct evidence to show that Ixchel was a moon goddess and (2) the Classic Maya moon goddess, identifiable through her crescent, is invariably represented as a fertile young woman. Moreover, fertility and procreation are as important to an aged midwife as to a young mother, albeit in different ways.” ref

“An entwined serpent serves as Ixchel’s headdress, crossed bones may adorn her skirt, and instead of human hands and feet, she sometimes has claws. Very similar features are found with Aztec earth goddesses, of whom Tlaltecuhtli, Toci, and Cihuacoatl were invoked by the midwives. Being a jaguar goddess, the Classic Ixchel (or ‘Chak Chel’) could equally be imagined as a fearsome female warrior equipped with shield and spear, not unlike Cihuacoatl in the latter’s capacity of Yaocihuatl (‘Warrior Woman’). The Madrid Codex (30b) assimilates Goddess O to a rain deity, with rain pouring from her arm-pits and abdomen, while the Dresden Codex includes her in almanacs dedicated to the rain deities (Chaacs) and typically has her invert a water jar. On page 74 of the same codex, her emptying of the water jar replicates the vomiting of water by a celestial dragon. Although this scene has usually been understood as the Flood bringing about the end of the world, it is now thought to symbolize periodic rain storms and floodings as predicted on the basis of the preceding ‘rain tables.” ref

“Ixchel figures in a Verapaz myth related by Las Casas, according to which she, together with her spouse, Itzamna, had thirteen sons, two of whom created heaven and earth and all that belongs to it. No other myth figuring Ixchel has been preserved. However, her mythology may once have focused on the sweatbath, the place where Maya mothers were to go before and after birthgiving. As stated above, the Aztec counterpart to Ixchel as a patron of midwifery, Toci, was also the Goddess of the sweatbath. In myths from Oaxaca, the aged adoptive mother of the Sun and Moon siblings is finally imprisoned in a sweatbath to become its patron deity. Several Maya myths have aged goddesses end up in the same place, in particular the Cakchiquel and Tzʼutujil grandmother of Sun and Moon, called Bʼatzbʼal (“Weaving Implement”) in Tzʼutujil. On the other hand, in Qʼeqchiʼ Sun and Moon myth, an aged Maya goddess (Xkitza) who would otherwise appear to correspond closely to the Oaxacan Old Adoptive Mother, does not appear to be connected to the sweatbath.

“In the early 16th century, Maya women seeking to ensure a fruitful marriage would travel to the sanctuary of Ix Chel on the island of Cozumel, the most important place of pilgrimage after Chichen Itza, off the east coast of the Yucatán peninsula. There, a priest hidden in a large statue would give oracles. To the north of Cozumel is a much smaller island baptized by its Spanish discoverer, Hernández de Córdoba, the “Island of Women” (Isla Mujeres), “on account of the idols representing the Goddesses of the country which he found there, such as Ixchel, Ix Chekel Yax, Ixhunie, Ixhunieta. They were clothed from the waist down and had their breasts covered, as is the custom of Indian women.” On the other side of the peninsula, the head town of the Chontal province of Acalan (Itzamkanac) venerated Ixchel as one its main deities. One of Acalan’s coastal settlements was called Tixchel “At the place of Ixchel”. The Spanish conqueror, Hernán Cortés, tells us about another place in Acalan where unmarried young women were sacrificed to a goddess in whom “they had much faith and hope”, possibly again Ixchel.” ref

Maya textiles

Maya textiles (k’apak) are the clothing and other textile arts of the Maya peoples, indigenous peoples of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Belize. Women have traditionally created textiles in Maya society, and textiles were a significant form of ancient Maya art and religious beliefs. They were considered a prestige good that would distinguish the commoners from the elite. According to Brumfiel, some of the earliest weaving found in Mesoamerica can date back to around 1000–800 BCE. Ancient Maya women had two natural types of cotton to work with, one white and the other light brown, called cuyuscate, both of which were commonly dyed. The preparation of cotton for spinning was very burdensome, as it had to be washed and picked clean of seeds. The cotton was usually associated with the elites.” ref

“Elite women were also given the opportunity to work with the most expensive feathers and pearl beads. However, women of the elite not only had to prepare the best clothing for their families, but they also had to be talented in weaving tapestry, brocade, embroidery, and tie-dyeing for tribute to other families and rulers. Weavers had three different natural dyes to work with. Women also worked with maguey. This fiber was, “another commonly spun material, and depending on the species used and the number of production steps, it could produce either included human and animal hair (rabbit and dog), feathers, and vegetable fibers such as milkweed and chichicastle, a fibrous nettle native to Southern México, also known as mala mujer.” Maguey was of major value as a cordage material used for horse gear, nets, hammocks, and bags.” ref

“Until the nineteenth century, most dyed threads were naturally dyed but now in current times, Guatemalan weavers prefer and heavily rely on “commercial and handspun yarns dyed with mollusk dye.” As stated by Brumfiel, the use of these easier to acquire materials, “reduces the time needed for cloth production by two-thirds to three-quarters…, making it possible for weavers to devote more time to the actual weaving process” when using a backstrap loom. Instead focusing most of their time on creating the dyes and dyeing the cotton or maguey now, mollusk dye or acrylic thread threads speed-up the overall process. Another reason for using chemically dyed threads is because the, “colors are brighter and do not fade with wear, washing and exposure to the sun as readily as do naturally dyed threads.” ref

“In woven textiles, the first step is preparing fiber, which can come from plants, such as cotton or maguey, or animals, such as wool from sheep. In Mesoamerica, only plant fibers were used before European contact. The loose fibers are spun into threads by hand, with spindles, a long stick-like device for holding the thread, and whorls, a weight held on the spindle to increase its motion. There were two kinds of looms used for weaving, “the foot loom and the back-strap loom. The latter is almost invariably used by women, who attach one end of the loom to a tree or post and fix the other end behind their lower back. For this reason the width of the textile is constrained by what the particular woman can manage.” ref

“Until the fairly recent past, foot looms were operated mostly by men, but this practice is changing. The threads are made of cotton, although silk is frequently interwoven with cotton in textiles destined for ceremonial use.” After European contact, Clothing made from animal skins began to be used by the elites. In the pre-Columbian era, Mayan women exclusively wove with backstrap looms, that use sticks and straps worn around one’s waist to create tension. As written by Mahler: The backstrap loom, in use before European contact and still used by some weavers today, cannot even exist on its own without the support of a convenient upright at one end and the weaver’s body at the other.” ref

“The weaver controls the tension by the direction in which she moves her body, and opens and closes the sheds in which weft threads are inserted by lifting heddles, placing and rotating the wooden batten, and using other hand-held implements as needed… ‘The loom itself appears to be a simple device. When the cloth is completed, nothing remains of the loom except a pile of sticks’, yet studies of this technology have argued that it is really ‘a complex device, more responsive to the weaver’s creative impulses than the modern treadle loom’ introduced into the region by the Spanish.” ref

“After European contact, treadle looms were introduced, although backstrap looms continue to be popular. There had to be specific bodily discipline, like stillness, balance, and kneeling for a long time, in order to use the backstrap looms correctly, which would end up defining “the proper physical comportment for women.” Bone picks were used before contact and were unique in that they had different designs for most families and were usually passed on from generation to generation with the elite having the most expensive and beautiful. In the Maya civilization, a man’s typical dress was a cotton breechcloth wrapped around his waist and sometimes a sleeveless shirt, either white or dyed in colors.” ref

“In the twentieth-century traditional male attire was characterized by some articles that were specific to a couple of towns, this included: a saco (wool jacket) or capixaij (tunic), pantalones (trousers), camisa (shirt), belt or banda (sash), and rodillera (wool hip cloth). A woman typically wore a traje, which combined a huipil and a corte, a woven wraparound skirt that reached her ankles. The traje was held together with a faja or sash worn at the waist. Both women and men wore sandals. When the weather was temperate, Mayan clothing was needed less as protection from the elements and more for personal adornment. Maya clerics and other dignitaries wore elaborate outfits with jewelry.” ref

“Maya farmers wore minimal clothing. Men wore plain loincloths or a band of cloth winded around their waists. Some wore moccasins made of deerhide. Women possessed two items of clothing: a length of ornamented material with holes made for the arms and head, known as a kub. Both genders wore a heavier rectangle of cloth, as a manta, that functioned as an overwrap on cool days, and as blanket at night. The manta also served as a blind across the door. The most prevalent and influential aspect of women’s clothing in ancient times is the huipil, which is still prominent in Guatemalan and Mexican culture today. The huipil is a loose rectangular garment with a hole in the middle for the head made from lightweight sheer cotton.” ref

“The huipil is usually white with colorful cross-stripping and zigzag designs woven into the cloth using the brocade technique still commonly used today. The huipil could be worn loose or tucked into a skirt; this depends on the varying lengths of the huipil. Huipils often are used to display one’s religion and/or community affiliation. Different communities tend to have different designs, colors, and lengths as well as particular huipils for ceremonial purposes. It was uncommon and often disgraceful to wear a huipil design from another community within one’s village; although, it was a sign of respect to wear a community’s huipil when visiting another village. Textiles produced by weavers within Mayan communities tend to have similar recognizable traits unique to that community, however, weavers are not restricted in their creativity. Instead, the community design serves as an outline for what women should have, and then within the community design, weavers can implement a variety of personal details to create an individual finished product. One common theme is to express praise to different kiuggkes animals around the collar.” ref

“The hair sash is often the only part of the traditional outfit that is still locally woven by women on a backstrap loom. Each ethnic group not only has their own way of wearing the hair sash interlaced or wrapped around their long hair, but colors, motifs, widths, and the manner of setting up the loom and incorporating the geometric and figurative designs into the cloth are distinct. Elaborate hair sashes woven of finer thread with more complex imagery are worn on special occasions. Classic Maya clothing displays its full variety in the context of religious performance. The deities themselves and their human impersonators were recognizable by their dress. A good example of this is the Tonsured Maize God, who wore a netted over-skirt consisting of green jade beads and a belt consisting of a large spondylus shell covering the loins, and who was repeatedly impersonated by the king as well as the queen.” ref

“Mayan textiles stand out with their vivid colors in every shade dreamable and covered in geometric and floral patterns. These patterns are the visual codes of a symbolic system that communicates social and political information as well as spiritual beliefs. They speak on a variety of levels, and the ability to decipher their message depends on the degree of one’s literacy, which is often linked to the person’s extent of cultural initiation. Some messages are meant only for the members of the immediate community and sometimes only for the weaver herself, whose textiles are an essential outlet of personal creativity.” ref

Nowadays, Maya people inhabit the southeastern half of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Northern Honduras. They speak 28 dialects. Just as language and social traditions distinguish one group from another, so do their garments and the designs that ornate them.The clothing that contemporary Maya people wear, as well as a variety of daily use or ceremonial textiles, are a material expression of a collective language. Indigenous cultural heritage is the legacy of tangible physical artifacts and intangible aspects of a group or society. Especially for women, clothing is the main medium, silent but eloquent, through which the local ethnic identity is transmitted from past generations in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.” ref 

“Weaving has always been an act of power. To weave is to create. To weave is to connect. In ancient Egypt, in addition to cloth, magic could be woven. And Isis and Nephthys were known as the Abuti, the Two Weavers. In addition to Isis and Nephthys, there are other Egyptian weaving Goddesses. Tayt is the weaver of the all-important mummy wrappings, and Neith is the Great Goddess of culture and war, Whose symbol has been interpreted as either a weaving shuttle or a shield with spears. The Greeks associated Neith with Athena due to Her Athena-like primary occupations.” ref

“By the time Plutarch wrote his essay “On Isis and Osiris,” Isis and Neith were connected as well, for Plutarch notes specifically that Athena (that is, Neith) is a Goddess the Egyptians identify with Isis. Plutarch is also the one who tells us that the statue of the Goddess at Sais, home of Neith’s major temple, bore the famous inscription, “I am all that was, and is, and shall be, and no mortal hath ever Me unveiled.” Because of Plutarch’s preservation of this inscription, many people today are familiar with the idea of the Veil of Isis; the veil itself being a woven thing, of course.” ref

“Like Tayt, Isis and Nephthys were mummy-cloth weavers. Funerary texts sometimes call this magic-imbued cloth the “netting of Isis” and the “cloth of Nephthys.” The Goddesses weave other things as well. A formula in the Graeco-Egyptian magical papyri addresses the wick of a divinatory lamp as the funerary robe of Osiris that was “woven by the hand of Isis, spun by the hand of Nephthys.” In a burn-healing formula, Isis is said to come out of the spinning house in order to heal Horus. In Apuleius’ account of the Festival of the Ship of Isis, the ship’s sail is made of woven white linen and inscribed with magical letters. Initiates of the Mysteries of Isis were known for their woven white linen robes as well. Late sources specifically tell us that it was Isis Who invented weaving.” ref

“In most ancient societies, the dexterous hands of women did most of the spinning and weaving. But Egypt was unusual in that both men and women wove. The reason that weaving wasn’t strictly considered lower status “women’s work” may have been that weaving and knitting provided an Egyptian image for how magic could be worked—and both sexes practiced magic. Numerous funerary texts say that magic is knit or woven around the deceased. The dead person is “knit together in the egg” prior to rebirth, or her head is “knit on” by the Deities. An ancient formula to cure a poisoned cat says that Isis has “spun something” and Nephthys has “woven something” against the poison. Since weaving as an important mechanism of magic, Isis, the Goddess of Magic, is naturally a powerful weaver. Many modern magic workers would agree that the joining together of the threads of energy that are one mechanism of magic can be aptly described by actions such as weaving and knitting.” ref

Weaving Stories in Greek Myth: Arachne, Ariadne, & More

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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“Leto” Greek Goddess: enacting and weaving hymns.” ref, ref

“In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Leto (/ˈliːtoʊ/; Ancient Greek: Λητώ, romanized: Lētṓ pronounced [lɛːtɔ̌ː]) is a goddess and the mother of Apollo and Artemis. She is the daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe, and the sister of Asteria. In antiquity, Leto was usually worshipped in conjunction with her twin children, particularly in the sacred island of Delos, as a kourotrophic deity, the goddess of motherhood; in Lycia she was a mother goddess. In Roman mythology, Leto’s Roman equivalent is Latona, a Latinization of her name, influenced by the Etruscan Letun. In ancient art, she is presented as a modest, veiled woman in the presence of her children and Zeus, or in the process of being carried off by Tityos.” ref

“In the Olympian scheme, the king of gods Zeus is the father of her twins, Apollo and Artemis, whom Leto conceived after her hidden beauty accidentally caught the eye of Zeus. Classical Greek myths record little about Leto other than her pregnancy and search for a place where she could give birth to Apollo and Artemis, since Hera, the wife of Zeus, in her jealousy, ordered all lands to shun her and deny her shelter. Hera is also the one to have sent the monstrous Python, a giant serpent, against Leto to pursue and harm her. Leto eventually found an island, Delos, that was not joined to the mainland or attached to the ocean floor, therefore, it was not considered land or island, and she could give birth. In some stories, Hera further tormented Leto by delaying her labor, leaving Leto in agony for days before she could deliver the twins, especially Apollo. Once Apollo and Artemis are born and grown, Leto withdraws, to remain a matronly figure upon Olympus, her part already played.” ref

“Besides the myth of the birth of Artemis and Apollo, Leto appears in other notable myths, usually where she punishes mortals for their hubris against her. After some Lycian peasants prevented her and her infants from drinking from a fountain, Leto transformed them all into frogs inhabiting the fountain. In the story of Niobe, Queen Niobe boasts of being a better mother than Leto due to having given birth to a greater number of children than the goddess. Leto then asks her twin children to avenge her, and they respond by shooting all of Niobe’s sons and daughters dead as punishment. In another myth, the gigantic Tityos attempts to violate Leto, only for him to be slain by Artemis and Apollo.” ref

“Usually, Leto is found at Olympus among the other gods, having gained her seat next to Zeus, or accompanying and helping her son and daughter in their various endeavors. In antiquity, Leto was usually worshipped in conjunction with her twin children, particularly in the sacred island of Delos, as a kourotrophic deity, the goddess of motherhood; in Lycia she was a mother goddess. In Roman mythology, Leto’s Roman equivalent is Latona, a Latinization of her name, influenced by the Etruscan Letun. In ancient art, she is presented as a modest, veiled woman in the presence of her children and Zeus, or in the process of being carried off by Tityos.” ref

“Leto wasn’t just any standard Olympic-trial goddess. She had festivals, sanctuaries, and priestly entourages rocking in her name from Athens to the rugged terrains of Lycia. The Letoon at Xanthos was the headliner of her elaborately lyrical tour across the hearts and stone-carved avenues of Ancients. This sanctuary, manicured in sheer dedication in the zones of Zeus’ territory, unabashedly made real estate super sacred. effloresced with festivities marking her annual ‘bringing the twins to the playground’ saga, famously nicknamed ‘how about not pissing off Hera Festival,’ which in salient zones echoed by regular humans sipping wine must’ve sounded far less orb-weaving principled.” ref

“Within these pulsing precincts were paid enactments of the miracle of peaceful child birthing beneath attack drone-like Hera avatars. Locals donned in their mythic best would act out playing Leto for a day—or her spoilsport arch nemesis—detailing with sacred songs that subtly mixed drama with high octane rite-spun angst. Imagine communities putting on theatre, not just to cheer the benign goddess but enacting the weaving hymns reminiscent herald of Leto’s painful childbirth story, of motherhood torn from lazing diary entries to frontline cunning intensity.” ref

The Goddesses Who Wove the World

“Tayt was the ancient Egyptian goddess of weaving, textiles, and to a lesser extent mummification. Her role was similar to Hedjhotep. The name Taytet originates from a word meaning garment. Because linen was the most common textile used in ancient Egypt, Tayt often wove or gave linen headdresses to deities and high-ranked officials. Statues of deities were clothed in high quality linen, the linen being considered divine due to its quality and attributes. Linen is derived from the stem of the flax plant: the younger the plant, the higher the grade and the higher the quality of the linen product. Due to linen’s protective qualities, Tayt began being ascribed the role of a protective maternal figure. In Pyramid Text spell 738a, Tayt guards the pharaoh’s head, and helps him garner favor among other deities. In ancient Egypt, weaving was a popular commercial activity among workers’ women and royal women. Later, cotton was introduced to Egypt with the Roman Empire.” ref

“Tayt became associated as a funerary goddess through the application of mummification bandages. Tayt is known as a goddess who “awakes in peace” and is associated with textile offerings to garner favor from deities. As a funerary goddess, she is depicted in the Fifth Section of the Book of Caverns, which describes Ra’s journey through the underworld and his dealings with the damned. She is shown greeting Ra and Osiris in the lower register. In the Pyramid Texts of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, Tayt is characterized as a motherly figure wrapping bandages on a dead king. Mummy bandages came from the “land of Tait.” Tayt was the tutelary goddess of the town Tait as referenced in one of the Pyramid Texts. Neith, another goddess associated with weaving.” ref

Textiles in folklore

“Uttu was a Mesopotamian goddess associated with weaving. It has been suggested that she was connected with spiders, though the evidence is limited to a single text which might reflect scribal speculation. She was worshiped in Babylon and possibly in Early Dynastic Umma. She appears in multiple myths, such as Enki and Ninhursag and Enki and the World Order. Uttu’s name was written TAG×TÙG, with the sign TAG (usually pronounced as tuku) referring to the action of weaving cloth. The word uttu could also denote a part of a loom. Uttu was regarded as the goddess of weaving. According to an esoteric explanatory text which links various materials with gods, she could be associated with colored wool.” ref

Uttu and spiders

“Thorkild Jacobsen argued that Uttu was envisioned as a spider spinning a web. However, the connection between Uttu and spiders, or more precisely between her name and the Akkadian word ettūtu (“spider”), is limited to a single text, and it might represent a “learned etymology” (scribal speculation), a folk etymology or simply rely on the terms being nearly homophonous. Two copies of the text contain slightly different versions of the same passage, “the handiwork of a spider (ettūtu) will be steady in his house,” or “the handiwork of Uttu will be steady in his house.” Ettūtu was only one of the words for spiders present in Akkadian texts, the other two being anzūzu (written ŠÈ.GUR₄) and possibly lummû.” ref

“In Sumerian, spiders were known as aš, aš₅, lùm or si₁₄. In Mesopotamian literature, spiders are mostly attested in proverbs, with a particularly well-attested one describing a spider (ŠÈ.GUR4) putting a ḫamitu insect in fetters and then cutting it into pieces after it acted as a witness in a lawsuit against a kuzāzu insect. Most likely the meaning of it was that an evildoer should not act as a witness. Another proverb mentions a spider (ettūtu) which prepared a net to catch a fly but ended up threatened itself by a lizard, possibly meaning that one responsible for evil deeds will be eventually defeated by a greater force. Spiders also occur as an art motif on Early Dynastic seals associated with female weavers.” ref

“According to the myth Enki and Ninhursag, Uttu’s parents were Enki and Ninkurra. In a late tradition, Ninkurra was instead a male deity and Uttu’s husband. A variant of Enki and Ninhursag makes Ninkurra Uttu’s grandmother and Ninimma her mother. Enki is also addressed as Uttu’s father in a Neo-Assyrian incantation. However, another late text documents a tradition in which her father was Anu. In the late god list An = Anu ša amēli, Uttu is equated with Enki, which reflects a theological phenomenon of reinterpreting originally distinct deities responsible for specific professions as aspects of him even if they were originally viewed as female.” ref

“In Enki and Ninhursag, Uttu is the final goddess Enki (aided by his sukkal Isimud) tries to seduce while engaging in a series of incestuous encounters with his descendants (Ninšar, Ninkurra, in a variant of the text Ninimma, and finally Uttu). Unlike the other goddesses, Uttu receives advice from Ninhursag, and probably attempts to trick Enki with a false promise of marriage under the condition that he will supply her with fresh produce. While she is initially successful, Enki manages to obtain the requested cucumbers, apples and grapes from a farmer. He approaches her for a second time disguised as a gardener, and this time Uttu becomes pregnant. Ninhursag intervenes and manages to remove Enki’s seed from Uttu’s body, which breaks the cycle of incestuous relationships. The scene is more detailed than the previous encounters between Enki and his daughters in the same myth. Curiously, the narrative makes no reference to Uttu’s association with weaving.” ref

“Uttu also appears in the myth Enki and the World Order, where she is the last of the deities awaiting the assignment of a domain. She is called a “conscientious woman” and “the silent one”. It has been pointed out that both in Enki and Ninhursag and in Enki and the World Order, Uttu’s appearance marks a shift in the narrative: after her encounter with Enki in the former myth, the cycle of Enki’s attempts at seducing and taking advantage of the goddesses ends, while in the latter, after her destiny is declared, Inanna and her complaints about not receiving an appropriate share of the universe take the center stage. A reference to Uttu is also known from the debate poem The Debate between Grain and Sheep, which describes a distant time before she started to weave, symbolically representing the age before the advent of civilization and technology.” ref

“The mention of textiles in folklore is ancient, and its lost mythic lore probably accompanied the early spread of this art. Textiles have also been associated in several cultures with spiders in mythology. Weaving begins with spinning. Until the spinning wheel was invented in the 14th century, all spinning was done with distaff and spindle. In English the “distaff side” indicates relatives through one’s mother, and thereby denotes a woman’s role in the household economy. In Scandinavia, the stars of Orion’s belt are known as Friggjar rockr, “Frigg’s distaff.” ref

“The spindle, essential to the weaving art, is recognizable as an emblem of security and settled times in a ruler’s eighth-century BCE inscription at Karatepe: “In those places which were formerly feared, where a man fears… to go on the road, in my days even women walked with spindles.” In the adjacent region of North Syria, historian Robin Lane Fox remarks funerary stelae showing men holding cups as if feasting and women seated facing them and holding spindles.” ref

Weaving, Spinning — How fiber is rooted in the myths around the globe

“There is a long history of fiber, spinning, and weaving in our short amount of humanity on this earth. Not only has it been used to create clothing, ropes, and nets, it has beautified our walls, become covers for our windows, upholstery for our furniture, keeps us cozy at night indoors and out, necessary for various means of transportation, even armor. I wanted to learn a bit more about the mythological history of fiber and discovered a TON. I’m going to go over these mythological fiber crafters and provide links so you can read into further depth about this crazy cool world where our fictions/fantasies/fears/realities overlap. The best part is seeing how so many similarities appeared in vastly different cultures.” ref

“EGYPTIAN

• Isis — teacher of spinning, along with reading and agriculture. She is known for so much more, this little detail about spinning is swamped by the amount of her involvement/ability. Read more about her here.

• Neith — Goddess of crafts, spinning, hunting, war and wisdom. Also called Net or Neit. Also viewed at times as androgynous with no clear gender. Very involved in a number of major stories, Nit is identifiable by her emblems: most often it is the loom’s shuttle, with its two recognizable hooks at each end, upon her head and/or a sheild with crossed bows. Check it out here.
• cool factoid: According to E. A. Wallis Budge (The Gods of the Egyptians) the root of the word for weaving and also for being are the same: nnt.
• Tayet — Goddess of spinning and weaving, and the patron of weavers involved in mummification. There are ramblings that her name derives from the word “shroud”. Peep this.” ref

“GREEK

• Athena — Goddess of art, architecture, crafts, spinning, horses, intellect, oxen, purity, reason, science, war, weaving and wisdom. Also associated with Minerva — Roman Goddess of spinning, weaving, cities, industry, war, wisdom and the arts. She competed in a weaving contest with the mortal Arachne. Athena was so pissed at the cocky and proud (yet technically sound) Arachne and her insulting subject matter portrayed in the tapestry that she turned her into a spider, forever to weave and forever to have her weavings destroyed by humans. Like other goddesses and deities I will be mentioning, the spider/spider-woman/weaver woman related to spiders appears across the globe in myths from Egypt, to Greece, to Japan, to Native American tribes.
• Anake — Goddess of fate, also known as Necessitae. While she’s not a spinning Goddess, Plato had a vision of her spinning the universe; Can you imagine it? The sun, moon and planets were her spindle whorls; the sirens sang throughout the webs of time and fate she wove; while all the souls moved through the strands to and from death/rebirth.
• Philomela -the daughter of Pandion, a legendary king of Athens. Her sisters husband, Tereus found Philomela so beautiful that he raped her, and after cut her tongue out so that she could not tell about her violation. Her loom becomes her voice, and the story is told in the design, so that her sister Procne may understand and so women may take their revenge. Read in more detail how the abuse and censorship of women has been occurring for so long and how clever skills can tell the tale…and gain revenge… the story of the censored voice
• Lina — Goddess of flax weaving — hard to find much on Lina as a Greek myth other than the statement that she is a goddess of weaving. There is a Lina tie in to germanic/saxon myth of Holda (below). Lina’s Ordeal references that she *is* flax in this myth and is see as the female equal to John Barleycorn — linked here for starters (Flax is what linen is made out of)

• Penelope — a human and faithful wife of Odysseus. Penelope has a high lineage that melds human and divine, and is she perhaps secretly Odysseus’ own weaving goddess-nymph, like the two weaving enchantresses in the Odyssey, Circe and Calypso. She was a weaver, always weaving her design for a shroud by day, but unraveling it again at night, to keep her suitors from claiming her during the long years while Odysseus was away.
• Three Fates — Also called the Moerae, Moirae or Parcae or Klothes — Spinners of the thread of life. Chthonic Goddesses who determined the beginning, your fated life and its ending were the personifications of destiny. Daughters of Zeus and Themis (or were created by goddess Nyx without the intervention of man.) but in most myths teh fates were eternal and considered together as more powerful than most Gods. No other god had the right or the means to alter their decisions. “No human could blame the fates (Moirae), since there were times he was the only one responsible for his failures.” There is a triad of three women as dieties/matrons/witches in myth across various regions and can be found in Greek, Roman, Slavic, Norse, Germanic tales, in ancient and modern paganism, and even in our movies.
• Clotho “The Spinner” — Maiden — spun the Thread of Life
• Lachesis “Caster of Lots” — Matron — measured the Thread of Life
• Atropos, or Astropos “Unbending” — Crone — cut the Thread of Life” ref

“NATIVE AMERICAN –

• Spider Woman— Also known as Spider Old-woman or Grandmother Spider woman is represented as a powerful teacher or helper in some tribal stories and as a trickster with intelligence and skill. She sang the world into existence. To many Native Americans it is considered bad luck to kill a spider.
• Spider Grandmother(Hopi) — Spider Grandmother is the special benefactor of the Hopi tribe. In the Hopi creation myths, Spider Grandmother created humans from clay (with the assistance of Sotuknang and/or Tawa), and was also responsible for leading them to the Fourth World (the present Earth.) Also according to mythology she was responsible for the stars in the sky; she took a web she had spun, laced it with dew, threw it into the sky and the dew became the stars. Her web represents the matrix of our reality and how we are all connected. This also ties into dreamcatchers.
• Spider Woman(Navajo) — Spider Woman is one of the most important deities of traditional Navajo religion. Unlike the Hopi Spider Grandmother, the Navajo Spider Woman is not considered the creator of humans, but she is their constant helper and benefactor. Spider Woman was the advisor of the heroic twins Monster-Slayer and Born-for-Water, taught the people the arts of weaving and agriculture, and appears in many legends and folktales to “save the day,” protect the innocent, and restore harmony to the world.” ref

“BALTIC

• Saule — solstice Goddess of the sun, spinning sunlight and weaving — The Baltic (Latvia and Lithuania) connection between the sun and spinning is as old as spindles of the sun-stone, amber, which is considered a magical substance, that have been uncovered in burial mounds. Some of these spindles have signs of use, not merely symbolic. The family of Saule, Beiwe, and Sol are all intertwined in sun lore in spinning, harvest times, the motions of the sun and moon.. Here is a daily blessing:
• Saule, my amber weeping Goddess creating light like thread. As “Saules Mat” my mother sun, daily blessing your thankful world with light.” ref

“SLAVIC

• Mokosh — Goddess of spinning, protector of women, their health and their children. She was a protector of sheep and fleece and was tied to water and rain. The close reference of her name to water (mokar= wet) lead to rain being called mokars milk. Her role was also similar to the Sudjaje (the Fates) who give and takes life, spinner of the thread of life, giver of the water of life. There was in 16th century a connection to the Russian fairy tale witch Baba-Jaga. Also known as Mokysha, Mokush. She later evolved into: St Petka, Paraskeva-Piatnitsa — a Goddess of spinning, water, fertility, and health with marriage.” ref

“NORSE

• Frigg — spinning Goddess who knows the fate of all men. The Wife of Odin and Queen of Aesir. The only one permitted to sit on the high seat other than her husband Odin. As Goddess of weaving she was associated with weaving clouds and the threads of fate, known as Wyrd in the Nordic tradition. In Scandinavia, the constellation Orion’s Belt is known as Frigga’s Distaff. Her name means “beloved one.” Other spellings of this Goddesses name include Frea, Fija, Friia, Frig and Friggja.
• Bertha — Goddess of spinning — would wander the countryside over midwinter and yuletide — was able to tell if young children and servants were not behaving well, did not finish their chores of spinning wool. Common names alsoPerchta, Behtra
• Norns, Nornir– The Norse fates. Three spirits who spin the Thread of Life for all living beings, gods, men, giants and dwarves. They are three sisters who live near the Well of Urd at the foot of Yggdrasil. The names of the three sisters are Urd, Verdande, and Skuld.Urd is the oldest of the sisters, and is associated with the past. Verdande is associated with the present and Skuld is associated with possible futures. More often in Norse mythology they are associated with what was, what is and what could come to be. Currently, however, most mythologists believe that Urd means Fate, referring to those actions that have already taken place; Verdandi means Becoming, referring to those actions in the process of taking place; and Skuld means Necessity, referring to those necessary actions that drive the whole process.” ref

“GERMANIC

• Holda — Teutonic Goddess (Frau Holda)of spinners and weavers who teaches, encourages, inspires and rewards the hard workers. Bringer of winter and referenced as the White Lady of Winter and protector of women. She also gathers the trapped souls of children that died before they were named so could not leave this plane. Also mentioned in the tale “Fru Holda” by the Brothers Grimm and accredited with inspiring (albeit maligned and evil versions) the hag in snow white (favorite plants being apple and flax), making a spindle and wheel tools of evil, and even mother goose. Geese are sacred to Holda, and some say she is the source of that storybook character. Her story trails into the Norse stories of Frigg, Bertha and paganic references to Christmas traditions. Other names she is known by in Germanic and Scandinavian folklore, Holde or Holle or Hulda or Huldra.” ref

“CELTIC/BRITISH

• Habetrot — Goddess of healing and spinning — Spinning is both Pagan lingo for spell casting and for the turning of the Wheel of the Year. She may have been a Goddess of magic or a seasonal mother/creator. Habetrot is best known for healing powers of her skills with weaving fiber. All who wore the clothing she wove would never fall ill.
• Brigid — Celtic saint and goddess of poetry, healing and smithcraft. She is also a patron of other womanly arts — midwifery, dyeing, weaving and brewing, and guardian of children and farm animals and the patron of travelers, sailors, and fugitives. Also known to have 2 sisters and be a “triple goddess” and is a water deity…” ref

“CHINESE

• Chih Nu — Goddess of weaving -The daughter of the Jade Emperor, she spends all her time spinning beautiful silk robes and lacey garments for the Heavenly Host. She also makes the finest gossamer clouds and her tapestry of the constellations is a work of art. Her story is based on legend of the weaver girl and the cowherd. There are many variables of this tale (here is one and this clarification explains the variables across regions in and around china), but all seem to be the genesis story of a Chinese “valentines day” for lack of a better example. Also referenced by the names of Chih Nii, Chih Hii, Zhi Nu, Zhinü.” ref

“JAPANESE

• Amaterasu — Goddess who spins and weaves sunbeam is the supreme deity and divine ancestor of the Japanese Imperial Family and as the sun goddess, was responsible for illuminating the world and for insuring the fertility of the rice fields. Amaterasu was also an accomplished weaver, with many attendants who joined her in weaving the stunning satins, silks, and brocades for which Japan is rightfully famous. The legend of Amaterasu lead us to the sacred mirror, jewel, and sword which collectively became the three Imperial Regalia of Japan.
• Wakahiru— a weaving goddess that is Amaterasu’s younger sister and in some tales Wakahiru is another name used to represent Amaterasu. She is a specialist in needle craft and weaving, known as the dawn goddess and cherishes the handmade craft and the tools of craft.
• Kamuhata Hime— This goddess represents love, arts and relationships, and weaves the stars together. The weavings of tales have magical powers that are utsuhata (woven perfectly) and never need to be cut or sewn. Good thing because the stories of soldiers is you CANNOT cut the tate weavings.” ref

Arachnophilia: Spiders in Art and Folklore

Spiders in Mythology: Unraveling Legends and Beliefs

Japanese folklore believed in terrifying goblin-spiders

The Seven Spider Demons

“Yaoguai types and examples are some times thought of as a “demon”, but this label can be very misleading, demons in the religious sense include “fiend”, “monster”, “goblin”, “evil spirit” or “bogeyman”. Yaoguai are a class of creatures in Chinese mythology, folk tales, and literature that are defined by their supernatural (or preternatural) abilities and by being strange, uncanny, or weird. These creatures blur the boundaries between the natural and the unnatural, the human and the non-human, and their appearance in tales is often related to political portents or as a reflection of the social and cosmopolitical order.” ref

“Possession of supernatural power defines the 妖怪 (yāoguài) and distinguishes them from other monsters. They are described as possessing powers beyond the ordinary, such as shapeshifting, enchantment, creating illusions, hypnosis, controlling minds, causing disease, clairvoyance, and draining life force. They typically dwell in remote areas or on the fringes of civilization, occasionally interacting with human life and inflicting harm. They are usually malevolent and tend to exert a baleful influence on mankind.” ref

The Emergence of a Shape-Shifting Killer Female Spider 

“Jorogumo, a mysterious and alluring figure in Japanese folklore, is known as the spider woman who lures unsuspecting victims into her web.” ref

Weaving and the Loom

“The loom has been an essential tool in human civilization for thousands of years, shaping how we dress, furnish our homes, and express ourselves artistically. The loom has facilitated the production of textiles that serve a functional purpose and carry cultural significance and meaning. The first loom can be traced back to the Neolithic period, around 12,000 years ago. The earliest known type of loom is the backstrap loom, which originated in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. In a backstrap loom, the weaver attaches one end of the warp threads to a fixed point and the other to a belt wrapped around the weaver’s body.” ref

“The weaver’s body movement then tightens and loosens the warp threads, creating a simple, portable, and efficient method for creating textiles. As civilizations advanced, the loom evolved into more complex and efficient forms. The ground loom, which originated in ancient China around 5,000 years ago, saw the warp threads stretched horizontally close to the ground while the weft threads were passed through using a simple shuttle. This made weaving large pieces of fabric more comfortable and accessible.” ref

“The loom is a symbol of cosmic creation and the structure upon which individual destiny is woven. This symbolism is encapsulated in the classical myth of Arachne who was changed into a spider by the goddess Athena, who was jealous of her skill at the godlike craft of weaving. In Maya civilization the goddess Ixchel taught the first woman how to weave at the beginning of time.” ref

“A loom is a machine for weaving cloth. The earliest looms date from the 5th millennium BCE (around 7,000 to 6,000 years ago) and consisted of bars or beams fixed in place to form a frame to hold a number of parallel threads in two sets, alternating with each other.” ref

“A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same. The word “loom” derives from the Old English geloma, formed from ge- (perfective prefix) and loma, a root of unknown origin; the whole word geloma meant a utensil, tool, or machine of any kind. In 1404 “lome” was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth. By 1838 “loom” had gained the additional meaning of a machine for interlacing thread.” ref

“Weaving is done on two sets of threads or yarns, which cross one another. The warp threads are the ones stretched on the loom (from the Proto-Indo-European *werp, “to bend”). Each thread of the weft (i.e. “that which is woven”) is inserted so that it passes over and under the warp threads. The ends of the warp threads are usually fastened to beams. One end is fastened to one beam, the other end to a second beam, so that the warp threads all lie parallel and are all the same length.” ref

“The beams are held apart to keep the warp threads taut. The textile is woven starting at one end of the warp threads, and progressing towards the other end. The beam on the finished-fabric end is called the cloth beam. The other beam is called the warp beam. Beams may be used as rollers to allow the weaver to weave a piece of cloth longer than the loom. Simple weaves, and complex weaves that need more than two different sheds, can both be woven on a warp-weighted loom. They can also be used to produce tapestries.” ref

“As the cloth is woven, the warp threads are gradually unrolled from the warp beam, and the woven portion of the cloth is rolled up onto the cloth beam (which is also called the takeup roll). “The portion of the fabric that has already been formed but not yet rolled up on the takeup roll is called the fell. Not all looms have two beams. For instance, warp-weighted looms have only one beam; the warp yarns hang from this beam. The bottom ends of the warp yarns are tied to dangling loom weights.” ref

“The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period. Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep bundles of the warp threads taut. Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the weights. When a weaver has woven far enough down, the completed section (fell) can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be unwound from the weights to continue. This frees the weaver from vertical size constraint. Horizontally, breadth is limited by armspan; making broadwoven cloth requires two weavers, standing side by side at the loom.” ref

“In a treadle loom, the shedding is controlled by the feet, which tread on the treadles. The earliest evidence of a horizontal loom is found on a pottery dish in ancient Egypt, dated to 4400 BCE or around 6,400 years ago. It was a frame loom, equipped with treadles to lift the warp threads, leaving the weaver’s hands free to pass and beat the weft thread. A pit loom has a pit for the treadles, reducing the stress transmitted through the much shorter frame.” ref

“In a wooden vertical-shaft loom, the heddles are fixed in place in the shaft. The warp threads pass alternately through a heddle, and through a space between the heddles (the shed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threads — the threads passing through the spaces between the heddles remain in place. A treadle loom for figured weaving may have a large number of harnesses or a control head. It can, for instance, have a Jacquard machine attached to it (see Loom#Shedding methods).” ref

“A drawloom is for weaving figured cloth. In a drawloom, a “figure harness” is used to control each warp thread separately, allowing very complex patterns. A drawloom requires two operators, the weaver, and an assistant called a “drawboy” to manage the figure harness.” ref

“The earliest confirmed drawloom fabrics come from the State of Chu and date c. 400 BCE. Some scholars speculate an independent invention in ancient Syria, since drawloom fabrics found in Dura-Europas are thought to date before 256 CE. The draw loom was invented in China during the Han dynasty (State of Liu?); foot-powered multi-harness looms and jacquard looms were used for silk weaving and embroidery, both of which were cottage industries with imperial workshops. The drawloom enhanced and sped up the production of silk and played a significant role in Chinese silk weaving. The loom was introduced to Persia, India, and Europe.” ref

A Short Overview of Loom Types and Their Place in Weaving History

Loom Types

“Band looms: No physical remains have been left by these looms, and any representations of them in prehistoric images are rare enough to be nearly nonexistent. The only evidence we have that they must have existed is the bands that have been found — they exist, therefore the looms they were woven on must have existed. They were probably back-strap looms. Probably the oldest type of loom — the next two types derive from it but are completely different solutions to the same problem: weaving a wider piece of cloth than is possible from a band loom.” ref

“Back-strap looms: Probably the simplest form of loom: one end of the warp is tied to a tree, post, or some other large object that is not likely to be easily moved, and the other end is tied to the weaver’s waist. Warp tension is controlled by the weaver leaning back on the warp. The width of the fabric that can be produced using this method is limited, though — tying the warp into a bundle at each end forces the weaving into a condensed space, laterally, and having the warp tied to the weaver limits how far the fabric can be woven before adjustments must be made to accommodate the reach of the weaver’s arms. Clearly the warp must be spread wider in order to get any sort of substantial width in the resulting cloth.” ref

“Two-beam ground looms: These are simple looms formed by pegging sticks into the ground, placing beams on the outside of the pegs and winding a warp between the two beams. A heddle rod may be used to control the weaving shed of the warp. Again, no physical evidence of the looms exists, except in depictions of weavers on other artifacts. These seem to have developed in the Late Neolithic, in the area of Mesopotamia and Syria, and their use moved southeast from there.” ref

“Warp-weighted looms: This is an upright loom, using an upper beam to support the warp, which is divided into the different sheds needed for the cloth being woven, and then stretched taut by weights hung from the warp threads. A lower beam keeps the front and back parts of the warp separated, and heddle rods are used to change the weaving sheds between the sections of warp as needed for the weave chosen by the artisan. Warp-weighted looms are possibly the only type of loom for which there are plentiful artifacts remaining, in the form of loom-weights. Note here that the cloth is woven from the top down, with the weaver beating upward. These, too, seem to have developed in the Late Neolithic, in the area of the Eastern Mediterranean, and then migrated northwest throughout Central and Western Europe.” ref

“Two-beam vertical looms: This seems to answer the problem of weaving in a different way than the warp-weighted loom, by using the bottom beam of the loom to hold the warp taut instead of free-hanging loom-weights. This also allows the weaver to beat down on the weaving, instead of beating upward (thus allowing the weaver to sit down while weaving). This loom is believed to have been invented in the Third Millennium BCE, in the area of Syria, essentially on the border of the areas that used the horizontal and vertical (warp-weighted) looms.” ref

“It is also possible that it was developed in the Caucasus, where no information has been preserved of what was used for weaving in prehistoric periods. One drawback, in comparison to the warp- weighted loom, is that the size of the loom and the length of warp possible limit the length of the cloth produced. By contrast, the warp-weighted loom puts little limit on length, as excess warp can be gathered below the loom-weights, and only the length of the cloth beam and the other crossbeams used to build the loom limits the width of the cloth.” ref

Weave Types

“Plain/Tabby weave (& Basket weave): This is the simplest form of weave – one thread over, one thread under. In basket weave, the bundles are equal numbers each way. The weave may be even, with both warp and weft showing, or the cloth may be either warp- or weft-faced, depending on which thread predominates. The ground looms are theorized to have been limited to this, due to the difficulty of using multiple heddle bars on a ground loom. Twill weaves: X threads over/X threads under — with the Xs not necessarily being equal — with a shift of usually one thread laterally with each successive iteration. This produces diagonal lines in the weave structure. If the shift is not one thread, then the twill is usually referred to as a “broken” twill. Warp-weighted looms, and any shafted looms, can weave these, as can any upright loom that can be fitted with multiple heddle rods.” ref

“Tapestry: A weft-faced plain weave, using multiple colors, usually used for patterning, as the weft normally goes only for short distances before it turns back on itself. Two-beam vertical looms are most often used for this weave. Knotted pile weaves: Most commonly, this is a combination of interlacing ground weft and short lengths of tuft-forming weft threads. The ground weft may be inserted with the aid of a shed-forming device on a loom, but the short lengths for the tuft are always hand-inserted with a needle — either by loop wrapping or by knotting, whether symmetrically or asymmetrically. This is also most commonly done on a two-beam vertical loom.” ref

Fiber Types

“Linen/Bast fibers: Egypt seems to have used linen and other bast fibers predominantly, and used them on the ground loom to the exclusion of any sign of a warp-weighted loom in the region, once it started weaving in the 5th Millennium BCE. Wool: Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Iran and the Caucasus all seem to have taken up using wool, as well as using linen, in their weaving, and may have done so early, as sheep domestication may have occurred as early as the 7th Millennium BCE. Both these fibers spread northwest throughout Europe, along with the warp-weighted loom.” ref

Weaving Zones

“Elizabeth Wayland Barber, in her book Prehistoric Textiles (1991, see pp. 249-253, particularly), ultimately divides the area of Europe, Western Asia and the Middle East/North Africa into four different zones, as far as the development of weaving and textiles is concerned. Her zones, and their criteria are:

Northwest Zone

(Central and Eastern Europe) Warp-Weighted Loom
Band Loom
Bast and Wool Supplemental-Weft floats

Southwest Zone

(Egypt and the Nile)
Ground Loom
Bast and very little Wool Supplemental-Weft inlay

Northeast Zone

(Western Asia & Ural Mountains) Felt
Band Loom
Wool and a little Bast Stitchery

Southeast Zone

(Mesopotamia and the Middle East) Ground Loom
Bast and Wool fibers
Faced weaves, including Tapestry” ref

Loom Weights

“Surprisingly, until recent years little had been written about loom weights, beyond their identification and locations where they have been found. Only within the past decade or two has any analysis been done as to what loom weights can tell us about the cloth being woven on the looms they were associated with — the fineness of the threads being used, the density of warp that is possible, etc. Just as the weight of a spindle whorl controls the fineness of the thread that can be spun on a spindle, so too the weight and shape of a loom weight can control how many threads can be attached to it, and what quality of fabric could have been produced, given a specific quality of thread. Loom weights (and spindle whorls) are finally being looked at as a source of information in their own right, not just as an artifact of domestic life in an area. We should see exciting information from here, soon.” ref 

Prehistoric clothing and textiles

“The development of textile and clothing in prehistory has been the subject of a number of scholarly studies since the late 20th century. These sources have helped to provide a coherent history of these prehistoric developments. Nonetheless, scientists have never agreed on when humans began wearing clothes and the estimates suggested by various experts have ranged greatly, from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago.” ref

“Recent studies by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking—anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—have attempted to constrain the most recent date of the introduction of clothing with an indirect method relying on lice. The rationale for this method of dating stems from the fact that the human body louse (P. humanus corporus) cannot live outside of clothing, dying after only a few hours without shelter. This strongly implies that the date of the body louse’s speciation from its parent, the human louse (Pediculus humanus), can have taken place no earlier than the earliest human adoption of clothing.” ref

“This date, at which the body louse diverged from both its parent species and its sibling subspecies, the head louse (P. humanus capitus), can be determined by the number of mutations each has developed during the intervening time. Such mutations occur at a known rate and the date of last-common-ancestor for two species can therefore be estimated from the difference in number of their respective mutations. These studies have produced dates ranging from 40,000 to 170,000 years ago, with a 2003 study speculating a date of 107,000 years ago, and a 2011 study confirming the most likely time of 170,000 years ago.” ref

“Kittler, Kayser and Stoneking suggest that the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, which is thought to have begun between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago. A second group of researchers, also relying on the genetic clock, estimate that clothing originated between 30,000 and 114,000 years ago. It is important to note that some of these estimates predate the first known human exodus from Africa. However, other Hominidae species, now extinct, may have also worn clothes and appear to have migrated earlier. It follows that the lice which presently infest human clothing may have first been acquired by Homo sapiens in colder climates from the bodies or discarded clothing of these cousin hominins.” ref

“Dating with direct archeological evidence produces dates consistent with those hinted at by lice. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made from 90,000 to 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco. However, despite these archaeological indications and genetic evidence, there is no single estimate that is widely accepted.” ref

“Sewing needles have been dated to at least 50,000 years ago (Denisova Cave, Siberia)—and are likely to have been made by H. Denisova/H. Altai, about 10,000 years before the arrival of Neanderthal and human groups in the cave. The oldest possible example is 60,000 years ago, a needlepoint (missing stem and eye) found in Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Other early examples of needles dating from 41,000 to 15,000 years ago are found in multiple locations, e.g. Slovenia, Russia, China, Spain, and France.” ref

“The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia and date back to 36,000 years ago. Cave paintings and pictorial evidence suggest the existence of dress in the Paleolithic period, around 30,000 years ago, though these were skin drapes. Textile clothing came to notice around 27,000 years ago, while actual textile fragments from 7000 BCE or around 9,000 years ago. have been discovered by archeologists.” ref

“The 25,000-year-old Venus Figurine “Venus of Lespugue“, found in southern France in the Pyrenees, depicts a cloth or twisted fiber skirt. Some other Western Europe figurines were adorned with basket hats or caps, belts were worn at the waist, and a strap of cloth wrapped around the body right above the breast. Eastern European figurines wore belts, hung low on the hips and sometimes string skirts. However, according to archeologists James M. Adovasio, Soffer and Hyland, the garments are more likely ritual wear, real or imagined, which served as a signifier of distinct social categories.” ref

“The earliest textiles found in South America date back to an estimated 12,000 years ago. These woven textiles were excavated from the Guitarrero Cave in Peru. It is assumed that they were being used by settlers for a variety of creations like baskets and wall coverings. Contrary to the assumptions that these early raids in the Andes mountains were executed exclusively by men, Edward A. Jolie’s research indicates that women must have been among these settlers as well. His reason for believing so is the general cultural connection of textile weaving being produced by women.” ref

“Knowledge of ancient textiles and clothing has expanded in the recent past due to modern technological developments. It is possible that the next textile to be developed – after using animal skin textiles – may have been felt. The first known plant-based textile of South America was discovered in Guitarrero Cave in Peru. It was woven out of vegetable fiber and dates back to 8,000 BCE.” ref

“Surviving examples of Nålebinding, another textile method emerging after animal skin textile usage, have been found in Israel, and date from 6500 BCE. Cultivation of domesticated wild flax, probably an import from the Levant, is documented as early as c. 6000 BCE. Other bast fibers including rush, reed, palm, and papyrus were used alone or with linen to make rope and other textiles. Evidence for wool production in Egypt is scanty at this period, although there are examples of wool tunics from Greco-Roman Egypt in late antiquity.” ref

“The earliest evidence of weaving in Japan is associated with the Jōmon period. This culture is defined by pottery decorated with cord patterns. In a shell mound in the Miyagi Prefecture, dating back about 5,500, some cloth fragments made from bark fibers were discovered. Hemp fibers were also discovered in the Torihama shell mound, Fukui Prefecture, dating back to the Jōmon period, suggesting that these plants could also have been used for clothing. Some pottery pattern imprints depict also fine mat designs, proving their weaving techniques. The patterns on the Jōmon pottery show people wearing short upper garments, close-fitting trousers, funnel-sleeves, and rope-like belts.” ref

“The depictions also show clothing with patterns that are embroidered or painted arched designs, though it is not apparent whether this indicates what the clothes look like or whether that simply happens to be the style of representation used. The pottery also shows no distinction between male and female garments. This may have been true because during that time period clothing was more for decoration than social distinction, but it might also just be because of the representation on the pottery rather than how people actually dressed at the time. Since bone needles were also found, it is assumed that they wore dresses that were sewn together.” ref

“Evidence exists for production of linen cloth in Ancient Egypt in the Neolithic period, c. 5500 BCE. Ancient Egyptian spinning techniques included the drop spindle, hand-to-hand spinning, and rolling on the thigh; yarn was also spliced. A horizontal ground loom was used prior to the New Kingdom, when a vertical two-beam loom was introduced, probably from Asia. Linen bandages were used in the burial custom of mummification, and art depicts Egyptian men wearing linen kilts and women in narrow dresses with various forms of shirts and jackets, often of sheer pleated fabric.” ref

“The earliest known woven textiles of the Near East may be flax fabrics used to wrap the dead; these were excavated at a Neolithic site at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia. Carbonized, and “protected by several layers of clay/plaster, in an anaerobic milieu…. They were ‘baked’, or ‘steam cooked” in a fire, and are radiocarbon dated to c. 6000 BCE. Evidence exists of flax cultivation from c. 8000 BCE in the Near East, but the breeding of sheep with a wooly fleece rather than hair occurs much later, c. 3000 BCE. Well preserved linen textiles were found in the Cave of the Warrior and are dating around 3200 BCE. Archaeologists have discovered artifacts from later which appear to have been used in the textile arts: net gauges from 5000 BCE., spindle needles, and weaving sticks.” ref

“The earliest evidence of silk production in China was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia, Shanxi, where a cocoon of bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm, cut in half by a sharp knife is dated to between 5000 and 3000 BCE. Fragments of primitive looms are also seen from the sites of Hemudu culture in Yuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BCE.” ref

“In Mesopotamia, the clothing of a regular Sumerian was very simple, especially in summer. In the winter, clothes were made of sheep fur. Even wealthy men were depicted with naked torsos, wearing only short skirts, known as kaunakes, while women wore long dresses to their ankles. The king wore a tunic, and a coat that reached to his knees, with a belt in the middle. Over time, the development of the craft of wool weaving in Mesopotamia led to a great variety in clothing. Thus, towards the end of the 3rd millennium BCE and later men wore tunics with short sleeves and even over the knees, with a belt (over which the rich wore a wool cloak). Women’s dresses featured more varied designs: with or without sleeves, narrow or wide, usually long and without highlighting the body.” ref

“Knowledge of cultures varies greatly with the climatic conditions to which archeological deposits are exposed; the Middle East, South America and the arid fringes of China have provided many very early samples in good condition, along with textile impressions in clay, and graphic portrayals. In northern Eurasia, peat bogs, rock salt mines, oak coffins, and permafrost also preserved textiles, with whole Neolithic garments surviving, some of the most famous are those associated with Ötzi (“the Iceman”), along with artifacts associated with textile production. Early development of textiles in the Indian subcontinent, sub-Saharan Africa and other moist parts of the world remains unclear.” ref

“Throughout the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, the fertile grounds of the Eurasian Steppe provided a setting for a network of nomadic communities to develop and interact. The Steppe Route has always connected regions of the Asian continent with trade and transmission of culture, including clothing. Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BCE. Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the [Shang Dynasty] (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE). Under the Shang Dynasty, Han Chinese clothing or Hanfu consisted of a yi, a narrow-cuffed, knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-length skirt, called shang, worn with a bixi, a length of fabric that reached the knees. Clothing of the elite was made of silk in vivid primary colors.” ref

“Fabric in Ancient Greece was woven on a warp-weighted loom. The first extant image of weaving in western art is from a terracotta lekythos in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY. The vase, c. 550-530 BCE., depicts two women weaving at an upright loom. The warp threads, which run vertically to a bar at the top, are tied together with weights at the bottom, which hold them taut. The woman on the right runs the shuttle containing the weaving thread across the middle of the warp. The woman on the left uses a beater to consolidate the already-woven threads.” ref

“Dress in classical antiquity favored wide, unsewn lengths of fabric, pinned and draped to the body in various ways. Ancient Greek clothing consisted of lengths of wool or linen, generally rectangular and secured at the shoulders with ornamented pins called fibulae and belted with a sash. Typical garments were the peplos, a loose robe worn by women; the chlamys, a cloak worn by men; and the chiton, a tunic worn by both men and women. Men’s chitons hung to the knees, whereas women’s chitons fell to their ankles. A long cloak called a himation was worn over the peplos or chlamys.” ref

“The toga of ancient Rome was also an unsewn length of wool cloth, worn by male citizens draped around the body in various fashions, over a simple tunic. Early tunics were two simple rectangles joined at the shoulders and sides; later tunics had sewn sleeves. Women wore the draped stola or an ankle-length tunic, with a shawl-like palla as an outer garment. Wool was the preferred fabric, although linen, hemp, and small amounts of expensive imported silk and cotton were also worn.” ref

“Around 114 BCE., the Han dynasty, initiated the Silk Road trade route. Geographically, the Silk Road or Silk Route is an interconnected series of ancient trade routes between Chang’an (today’s Xi’an) in China, with Asia Minor and the Mediterranean extending over 8,000 km (5,000 mi) on land and sea. Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, the Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. The exchange of luxury textiles was predominant on the Silk Road, which linked traders, merchants, pilgrims, monks, soldiers, nomads and urban dwellers from China to the Mediterranean Sea during various periods.” ref

“Excavations of Indus Valley civilization sites to date have yielded a few twisted cotton threads, in the context of a connecting cord for a bead necklace. However, terracotta figurines uncovered at Mehrgarh show a male figure wearing what is commonly interpreted to be a turban. A figurine, from the site of Mohenjo-daro, and labeled the “Priest King,” depicts the wearing of a shawl with floral patterns. So far, this is the only sculpture from the Indus Valley to show clothing in such explicit detail. Other sculptures of Dancing Girls, excavated from Mohenjo-daro, only show the wearing of bangles and other jewelry. However, the figurines do not provide any concrete proof to legitimize the history of clothing in the Harappan times.” ref

“Harappans may have used natural colors to dye their fabric. Research shows that the cultivation of indigo plants (genus: Indigofera) was prevalent. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, mentions Indian cotton in the 5th century BCE as “a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep.” When Alexander the Great invaded India, in 327 BCE, his troops started wearing cotton clothes that were more comfortable than their previous woolen ones. Strabo, another Greek historian, mentioned the vividness of Indian fabrics, and Arrian told of Indian–Arab trade of cotton fabrics in 130 CE.” ref

The Evidence of Shamanism Rituals in Early Prehistoric Periods of Europe and Anatolia 

Chasing the Shaman’s Steed: The Horse in Myth from Central Asia to Scandinavia (Presented at the Eurasian Archaeology Conference) 

Did shamans always play the drum? Tracking down prehistoric shamanism in Central Asia

ref

Sewing needles sites 45,000 and 25,000 years old.

Prehistoric sewing needles: sites that yielded eyed bone needles dating between 45,000 and 25,000 years old.

“A point that might be from a bone needle dates to 61,000 years ago and was discovered in Sibudu Cave, South Africa.”

“The first form of sewing was probably tying together animal skins using shards of bone as needles, with animal sinew or plant material as thread. The early limitation was the ability to produce a small enough hole in a needle matrix, such as a bone sliver, not to damage the material. Traces of this survive in the use of awls to make eyelet holes in fabric by separating rather than cutting the threads. A point that might be from a bone needle dates to 61,000 years ago and was discovered in Sibudu Cave, South Africa. A needle made from bird bone and attributed to archaic humans, the Denisovans, estimated to be around 50,000 years-old, and was found in Denisova Cave.” ref 

“A bone needle, dated to the Aurignacian age (47,000 to 41,000 years ago), was discovered in Potok Cave (Slovene: Potočka zijalka) in the Eastern Karavanke, Slovenia. Bone and ivory needles found in the Xiaogushan prehistoric site in Liaoning province date between 30,000 and 23,000 years old. Ivory needles were also found dated to 30,000 years ago at the Kostenki site in Russia. 8,600-year-old Neolithic needle bones were discovered at Ekşi Höyük, western Anatolia, in present-day Denizli Province. Flinders Petrie found copper sewing needles at Naqada, Egypt, ranging from 4400 to 3000 BCE. Iron sewing needles were found at the Oppidum of Manching, dating to the third century BCE.” ref

“A form of needle lace named nålebinding seems to generally predate knitting and crochet by thousands of years, partly because it can use far shorter rough-graded threads than knitting does. Native Americans were known to use sewing needles from natural sources. One such source, the agave plant, provided both the needle and the “thread.” The agave leaf would be soaked for an extended period of time, leaving a pulp, long, stringy fibres, and a sharp tip connecting the ends of the fibres. The “needle” is essentially what was the tip end of the leaf. Once the fibres dried, the fibres and “needle” could then be used to sew items together.” ref

“Sewing needles are an application of wire-making technology, which started to appear in the second millennium B.C. Some fine examples of Bronze Age gold torques are made of very consistent gold wire, which is more malleable than bronze. However, copper and bronze needles do not need to be as long: the eye can be made by turning the wire back on itself and redrawing it through the die.” ref 

“Currently, the earliest evidence of grinding technology comes from the Middle Paleolithic in the form of tools for processing ochre and organic materials such as animal hide. Subsequently, during the Upper Palaeolithic, grinding technology was widely applied in the production of bone and horn tools. Piercing techniques, commonly associated with personal ornaments such as beads, are regarded as one manifestation of modern human behaviors. One early application that integrated both ground and piercing methods involved the production of eyed bone needles. As the hard, sharp, pointed tip penetrates the soft organic material, the eye pulls the thread through the hole created by the point, simplifying the sewing task by eliminating the need for manual hole piercing with tools like an awl. This technological change enhanced human capabilities by facilitating human exploration of new environments. Needles enabled efficient production of warm clothing and fabric-based shelters so that people could permanently occupy colder latitudes.” ref

“The available evidence suggests that bone needles first appeared in Siberia approximately 50,000 years ago, which were not only used primarily for sewing and weaving warm clothing but also for decorative and symbolic purposes. They have also been found and reported from other sites in North and West Asia including Podzvonkaya, Mezmaiskaya Cave and Tolbaga, all of which are generally dated back to 25,000. Bone needles have been found in the Badegoulian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, Creswellian, and Azilian cultures in Western and Southern Europe, but they are all largely dated to after 22,000.” ref

“Subsequently, bone needles from the Gravettian and Gorodtsovian cultures have been found in Eastern Europe, and in North America, they began to appear around the YD (Younger Dryas) event (13,000 years ago). Bone needles from East Asia have been discovered in China at various sites including Zhoukoudian, Xiaogushan. These discoveries date back to 35,000 years ago. In contrast to the prevalent use of bone needles, formal stone needles are relatively uncommon, and appeared much later. Their presence is typically associated with ground technologies used for the production of stone and pottery tools during later Holocene period.” ref

Compared with other parts of Asia, human occupations of the Tibetan Plateau occurred relatively later because of its high altitude, cold climate, and harsh environmental conditions. Consequently, the emergence of bone needles and ground stone tools was largely delayed in the Tibetan Plateau region as well. Bone needles and stone beads, for instance, were recovered from the Layihai site at 7,741–7,430 years ago; the typical ground stone tools found at the Qugong site were weight stones (Relatively large, circular pebbles exhibiting a centrally perforated aperture) with ochre coatings at 1,742–930 BCE; weight stones and jade ornaments were found at the Karuo site at 5,680–4,180 years ago.” ref

“Both the Qugong and Karuo sites are more diverse in terms of the types of bone tools found, which include bone needles. Other later sites, such as Xiaoenda at 3,855–3,695 years ago and Germa (Middle and Late Neolithic Period), contained two common ground stone tools: stone rings and weight stones. Although grinding and perforation techniques were applied substantially in crafting specific items including bone needles, weight stones, and small decorative objects, these methods were not extensively employed on the Tibetan Plateau, particularly in relation to stone needles.” ref

“Six ground stone perforated (eyed) needles dated to the early Holocene from the Xiada Co (XDC) site. They represent the earliest known stone ground needles in the Eurasian archaeological context, as well as the earliest instance of ground stone artifacts found on the Tibetan Plateau. We employed a combination of microscopic analysis, experiments, three-dimensional (3D) models, and residue analysis in conjunction with previous ethnographic studies to analyze the needles’ production processes, and potential functions. The findings indicated that modern humans of the Tibetan Plateau possess technological skills in ground technology and intentionally selected appropriate raw materials for processing stone needles at 8,900–8,500 years ago.” ref

“Researchers found that the production of stone needles involves the selection of blanks, scrapping, grinding, and drilling, which is more time-consuming than producing bone needles. However, stone needles are harder and better suited for sewing tents. Our analysis of stone needles suggests they represent a special adaptive behavior of modern humans after their spread to and the permanent settlement of the Tibetan Plateau, which has not yet been found elsewhere. Furthermore, the discovery of pigments on stone needles indicates their possible ornamental functions, which could be one of the earliest instances of symbolism on the Tibetan Plateau.” ref 

The origin and evolution of sewing technologies in Eurasia and North America

“When, how, and following which paths hominins created the innovations that allowed them to colonize regions of the planet that were not suited to their thermal physiology is still a matter of inquiry. In this paper, we elaborate a theoretical framework to investigate the origin and diversification of bone needles, summarize the evidence for their emergence, create a large database of their morphometric and stylistic characters, and present results of the study of an exceptionally well-preserved collection of needles from Shuidonggou Locality 12 (SDG12), a site located in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Northern China, dated to ca. 11,200 years ago. Bone needles are reported from 271 sites and 355 archaeological layers. Revision of the evidence shows they represent an original cultural innovation that emerged in Eurasia between 45,000-40,000 years ago. Size differences between the earliest known specimens, found in Siberia and China, indicate needles may have been invented independently in these two regions. Needles from Eastern Europe may represent either an independent invention or a geographic extension of earlier Siberian and Caucasian sewing traditions.” ref

“In Western Europe, needles appear during the Solutrean. The wider size range characteristic of Magdalenian specimens supports the idea that needles of different sizes were used in a variety of tasks. In China, the robust sub-circular needles found at sites dated between 35,000-25,000 years ago are followed, between 26,000-23,000 years ago, by small flat needles, which may represent an innovation associated with the microblades/microcores toolkit. At SDG12, technological, functional, and morphometric analyses of finished needles and manufacturing by-products identify two previously undetected reduction sequences for the production of needles of different size and, probably, function. The bone needles found at Paleoindian sites are the smallest and reflect a never previously achieved mastery in the production of such tools.” ref

Andean textiles

“The earliest known surviving textiles are samples of fiberwork found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru dating back to 8000 BCE or 10,000 years ago. Early fiberwork by the Norte Chico civilization consisted of plant fibers that were intertwined and knotted to form baskets and other containers. Surviving examples of finely spun thread and simple cloths indicate that knowledge of spinning and weaving had already been well-established and developed in the area. Mummified human skeletons dating to this period were stuffed with plant fibers and wrapped in rope and cane, a preservation method invented in the Chilean Chinchoros area around 5000 BCE or 7,000 years ago. Existence of this technology demonstrates early knowledge of spinning naturally occurring fibers into cord.” ref

“The Andean textile tradition once spanned from the Pre-Columbian to the Colonial era throughout the western coast of South America, but was mainly concentrated in what is now Peru. The arid desert conditions along the coast of Peru have allowed for the preservation of these dyed textiles, which can date to 6000 years old. Many of the surviving textile samples were from funerary bundles, however, these textiles also encompassed a variety of functions. These functions included the use of woven textiles for ceremonial clothing or cloth armor as well as knotted fibers for record-keeping. The textile arts were instrumental in political negotiations, and were used as diplomatic tools that were exchanged between groups. Textiles were also used to communicate wealth, social status, and regional affiliation with others. The cultural emphasis on the textile arts was often based on the believed spiritual and metaphysical qualities of the origins of materials used, as well as cosmological and symbolic messages within the visual appearance of the textiles. Traditionally, the thread used for textiles was spun from indigenous cotton plants, as well as alpaca and llama wool.” ref 

Eyed Bone Needles from a Younger Dryas Paleoindian Component at Tule Lake Rock Shelter, Northern California 

“In archaeology, a bone tool is a tool created from bone. A bone tool can conceivably be created from almost any bone, and in a variety of methods. Bone tools have been documented from the advent of Homo sapiens and are also known from Homo neanderthalensis contexts or even earlier. Bone has been used for making tools by virtually all hunter-gatherer societies, even when other materials were readily available. Any part of the skeleton can potentially be utilized; however, antlers and long bones provide some of the best working material. Long bone fragments can be shaped, by scraping against an abrasive stone, into such items as arrow and spear points, needles, awls, and fish hooks. Bone tools had mainly been made from bone splinters or were cut into a useful shape. Archaeologists are convinced that bone tools were purposefully made by deer antlers cut into shape.” ref

“The bone was fashioned into tools such as spoons, knives, awls, pins, fish hooks, needles, flakers, hide scrapers and reamers. They made musical rasps, flutes and whistles as well as toys of bone. Decoratively carved articles were also made of bone such as hair combs, hair pins and pendants. Antler is much harder than bone and was used for flakers, points, knives and hair combs. Even the teeth and hooves did not go to waste. The teeth were drilled and used for decoration on clothing and necklaces. The hooves were also drilled and used for decoration on clothing as well as strung for rattles and bells. The oldest excavated bone tools are from Africa, dated to about 1.5 million years ago.” ref 

“It is widely accepted that they appeared and developed in Africa before any other geographic region. A very famous excavation of bone tools is that of the Blombos Cave in South Africa. A collection of twenty-eight bone tools were recovered from 70 thousand-year-old Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave. Careful analyses of these tools reveal that formal production methods were used to create awls and projectile points. Bone tools have been discovered in the context of Neanderthal groups as well as throughout the development of anatomically modern humans. Archaeologists have long believed that Neanderthals learned how to make bone tools from modern humans and by mimicking stone tools, viewing bone as simply another raw material.” ref

“Modern humans, on the other hand, took advantage of the properties of bone and worked them into specific shapes and tools. A recent discovery of specialized bone tools at two Neanderthal sites in southwestern France brings to light the idea that Neanderthals may have actually taught modern humans how to make specialized bone tools. The uncovering of lissoirs (“polishing stones”) at these sites is significant as they are about 51,000 years old, predating the known arrival of modern humans to Europe.” ref 

Needles made of human bones from Xochimilco

“Pre-Hispanic needles made of long human bones (Homo sapiens) from the region of Xochimilco, now a quarter in Mexico City. In the territory that is nowadays Mexico, before the arrival of the Spanish conquerors in 1517, different cultures developed a variety of societies that had a high political, economic, and religious complexity. For 4000 years (2500 BCE–1521 CE), the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayan, Zapotec, Mixtec, Totonaca, and Huasteca cultures, among many others, raised cities, roads and an intricate exchange network across the Mesoamerican cultural area.” ref

“During the Postclassic period, from the 12th to the 16th century, there was an important migration of the Chichimeca nomadic groups from the northern region of Mesoamerica, and they gradually settled down by the Lake of Texcoco, in the Basin of Mexico. Among these groups, the Xochimilca were the first ones to build their city in the southern part of the lake, which is known, even today, for being a place with ideal conditions for agriculture and where the human groups implemented and improved agricultural technology like chinampas, which is to plant in floating plots on the lake.” ref

“The last Chichimeca group that came to the Basin of Mexico was the Mexica (also known as Aztecs). In just 105 years (1325–1430) this people managed to settle on a small islet and build the largest city in the region, Tenochtitlan. They also went from being a minor tributary of the Tecpaneca group, to conquering all the other cities surrounding the lake, including Azcapotzalco, Coyoacan, Xochimilco, Tlahuac and Mixquic. Throughout the remaining part of the 15th century, the Aztecs conquered half of what is now the Mexican territory, and their domains even reached areas that now belong to Honduras, in Central America, in the early 16th century.” ref

“Both groups, Xochimilca and Mexica, shared a common language, religion, political, economic, and social development of their settlement organization and cultural practices: religious ceremonies, offerings to deities, types of burial, clothing, food, construction techniques and technology for manufacturing tools (Gibson, 1964). The last point is the main focus of this investigation.” ref

“The chronology of the household area from where these objects were recovered is particularly interesting. It is a place where the clash between two cultural, technological, religious, and economic ways of life took place: the encounter between the Mexica and the Spanish Empire, in which the latter was represented by the conquerors led by Hernán Cortés. Due to its proximity to Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the capital of the empire, Xochimilco soon saw progressive changes in everyday life. For example, the colonizers brought new ideas and objects that we can identify in all aspects of daily life; even in something a priori as simple as the artifacts made of worked animal hard tissues.” ref

“The archaeological needles that were studied in this research were discovered in an urban context in Xochimilco, which is now part of Mexico City, specifically in the neighborhood of San Pedro Tlalnahuac, known during the Colonial era (1521–1821) as the place where blacksmiths lived. The archaeological project located a household area built in the 14th century and occupied, at least, until the early 17th century. It was owned by artisans who specialized in lapidary artifacts and textile manufacturing.” ref

“7000 BCE or 9,000 years ago: Human settlement of Mehrgarh, one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. In April 2006, Nature note that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. 4130 BCE or 6,130 years ago: Toggling harpoons are invented somewhere in eastern Siberia, spreading south into Japan and east into North America, where they are ancestral to the sophisticated designs of the Inuit and later European whalers. 4000-2000 BCE: The Dene-Yeniseian languages split into Na-Dene in North America and Yeniseian languages in Siberia.” ref

Dene–Yeniseian is a proposed language family consisting of the Yeniseian languages of central Siberia and the Na-Dene languages of northwestern North America.

“In his 2012 presentation, Vajda also addressed non-linguistic evidence, including analyses of Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, which are passed unchanged down the male and female lines, respectively, except for mutations. His most compelling DNA evidence is the Q1 Y-chromosomal haplogroup subclade, which he notes arose c. 15,000 years ago and is found in nearly all Native Americans and nearly all of the Yeniseian Ket people (90%), but almost nowhere else in Eurasia except for the Selkup people (65%), who have intermarried with the Ket people for centuries.” ref

“Using this and other evidence, he proposes a Proto-Dene-Yeniseian homeland located in eastern Siberia around the Amur and Aldan Rivers. These people would have been hunter-gatherers, as are the modern Yeniseians, but unlike nearly all other Siberian groups (except for some Paleosiberian peoples located around the Pacific Rim of far eastern Siberia, who appear genetically unrelated to the Yeniseians). Eventually all descendants in Eurasia were eliminated by the spread of reindeer-breeding pastoralist peoples (e.g. the speakers of the so-called Altaic languages) except for the modern Yeniseians, who were able to survive in swampy refuges far to the west along the Yenisei River because it is too mosquito-infested for reindeer to survive easily. Contrarily, the caribou (the North American reindeer population) were never domesticated, and thus the modern Na-Dene people were not similarly threatened.” ref

Paleoindian Eyed bone needles  13,100-10,000 years old.

Oldest Rope?

“Impressions of clay provide evidence of string and rope-technology in Europe 28,000 years. Fragments of “two-ply laid” rope found in one of the caves at Lascaux, 17,000 years ago. The ancient Egyptians were probably the first civilization to develop special tools to make rope. Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 BCE and was generally made of water reed fibres. Other rope in antiquity was made from the fibres of date palms, flax, grass, papyrus, leather, or animal hair. The use of such ropes pulled by thousands of workers allowed the Egyptians to move the heavy stones required to build their monuments. Starting from approximately 2800 BCE, rope made of hemp fibres was in use in China. Rope and the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia, India, and Europe over the next several thousand years.” ref

“A carpet is a textile floor covering typically consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. Carpets can be produced on a loom quite similarly to woven fabric, made using needle felts, knotted by hand (in oriental rugs), made with their pile injected into a backing material (called tufting), flatwoven, made by hooking wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric, or embroidered. The knotted pile carpet probably originated in the Caspian Sea area (Northern Iran)  or the Armenian Highland. Although there is evidence of goats and sheep being sheared for wool and hair which was spun and woven as far back at the 7th millennium (7,000 to 6,000), the earliest surviving pile carpet is the “Pazyryk carpet”, which dates from the 5th-4th century BCE. It was excavated from a Pazyryk burial mound in the Altai Mountains in Siberia.” ref

“The oldest records of flat woven kilims come from Çatalhöyük Neolithic pottery, circa 7,000 BCE or around 9,000 years ago. One of the oldest settlements ever to have been discovered, Çatalhöyük is located southeast of Konya in the middle of the Anatolian region. The excavations to date (only three percent of the town) not only found carbonized fabric but also fragments of kilims painted on the walls of some of the dwellings. The majority of them represent geometric and stylized forms that are similar or identical to other historical and contemporary designs.” ref   

Clays, Clay Balls & other Clay Objects’ at Çatalhöyük

Clay Balls are solid spherical objects made of fired or baked clay with smooth surfaces of varying colors weights. A variety of contexts including under, in, or near ovens, between buildings, and in refuse pits or middens. While their ubiquitous presence in domestic contexts leaves no doubt that they were part of daily practice, the function(s) and significance of the clay balls remains somewhat of a puzzle. The balls had traditionally been assumed to be projectiles or “sling balls” used for hunting. However, since beginning more research at Çatalhöyük during field digs, now have been challenging this interpretation and have been conducting research related to a major working hypothesis, that the clay balls, primary function was related to heat transfer and that they would have been used in cooking and food preparation as well as for heating rooms within houses. And/or maybe the clay balls are spider nests, (possibly relating to a spider goddess) and/or where they related to Cosmic Egg beliefs?” ref, ref

The role of birds at Çatalhöyük (7500 to 6400 BCE) was revealed by the analysis of eggshells (Cosmic Egg/World Egg Creation Beliefs?)

The striking predominance of Anseriformes (probably including greylag geese, as well as ducks and swans) in all types of deposits examined, particularly middens and burial fills, suggests that these eggs were exploited as food and, at the same time, had a special significance for the inhabitants of the site. We detected the presence of crane eggshells in contexts associated with both the world of the living and the world of the dead (consistent with the well-known importance of this bird at Çatalhöyük), as well as the possible but infrequent occurrence of bustards and herons. Overall, we suggest that eggshell analysis, together with osteological data and the archaeological context, can provide the basis for a nuanced understanding of the relationship between humans and birds in the past.” ref

“The knotted rug is believed to have reached Asia Minor/Turkey and the Middle East with the expansion of various nomadic tribes peoples during the latter period of the great Turkic migration of the 8th and 9th centuries. Famously depicted in European paintings of The Renaissance, beautiful Anatolian rugs were often used from then until modern times, to indicate the high economic and social status of the owner. Women learn their weaving skills at an early age, taking months or even years to complete the beautiful pile rugs and flat woven kilims that were created for their use in every aspect of daily life. As is true in most weaving cultures, traditionally and nearly exclusively, it is women and girls who are both artisan and weaver.” ref 

“Although claimed by many cultures, this square tufted carpet, almost perfectly intact, is considered by many experts to be of Caucasian, specifically Armenian, origin. The rug is woven using the Armenian double knot, and the red filaments’ color was made from Armenian cochineal. The eminent authority of ancient carpets, Ulrich Schurmann, says of it, “From all the evidence available I am convinced that the Pazyryk rug was a funeral accessory and most likely a masterpiece of Armenian workmanship”. Gantzhorn concurs with this thesis. At the ruins of Persepolis in Iran where various nations are depicted as bearing tribute, the horse design from the Pazyryk carpet is the same as the relief depicting part of the Armenian delegation. The historian Herodotus writing in the 5th century BCE also informs us that the inhabitants of the Caucasus wove beautiful rugs with brilliant colors which would never fade.” ref 

“Various rug fragments have been excavated in Armenia dating back to the 7th century BCE or earlier. The oldest single surviving knotted carpet in existence is the Pazyryk carpet, excavated from a frozen tomb in Siberia, dated from the 5th to the 3rd century BCE, now in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. This square tufted carpet, almost perfectly intact, is considered by many experts to be of Caucasian, specifically Armenian, origin. The eminent authority of ancient carpets, Ulrich Schurmann, says of it, “From all the evidence available I am convinced that the Pazyryk rug was a funeral accessory and most likely a masterpiece of Armenian workmanship”. Gantzhorn concurs with this thesis. At the ruins of Persepolis in Iran where various nations are depicted as bearing tribute, the horse design from the Pazyryk carpet is the same as the relief depicting part of the Armenian delegation. Armenian carpets were renowned by foreigners who travelled to Artsakh; the Arab geographer and historian Al-Masudi noted that, among other works of art, he had never seen such carpets elsewhere in his life.” ref

“Art historian Hravard Hakobyan notes that “Artsakh carpets occupy a special place in the history of Armenian carpet-making.” Common themes and patterns found on Armenian carpets were the depiction of dragons and eagles. They were diverse in style, rich in colour and ornamental motifs, and were even separated in categories depending on what sort of animals were depicted on them, such as artsvagorgs (eagle-carpets), vishapagorgs (dragon-carpets) and otsagorgs (serpent-carpets). The rug mentioned in the Kaptavan inscriptions is composed of three arches, “covered with vegatative ornaments”, and bears an artistic resemblance to the illuminated manuscripts produced in Artsakh. The art of carpet weaving was in addition intimately connected to the making of curtains as evidenced in a passage by Kirakos Gandzaketsi, a 13th-century Armenian historian from Artsakh, who praised Arzu-Khatun, the wife of regional prince Vakhtang Khachenatsi, and her daughters for their expertise and skill in weaving.” ref

“According to ancient perceptions, the carpet is the universe where, according to mythological conceptions, there is:

1. The sacred center,
2. The cosmic space,
3. The zone demarcating and protecting the universe.” ref

ref

The Oldest Carpet in the World, Found in an Iron Age Burial Mound Tomb more than 2,000 years old.

“It is reasonable to deduce that in the successive phases of prehistory, humans, in their effort to create a warmer environment, used animal skins to cover the floors of the caves and huts they inhabited. These were the precursors to what would later be purposefully woven with advancing technology and is known today as the carpet. When exactly did this happen? The archaeological record tells us that the oldest carpet in the world is more than 2,000 years old. Of course, it is impossible to know if there were earlier examples, which is almost certain; only that the material reality is this. It corresponds to a piece found in 1947 in Siberia, where the temperatures were so cold that it froze, and thanks to this, its preservation for two and a half millennia was guaranteed, as it never thawed. It is known as the Pazyryk carpet or the Gorno-Altai carpet, in reference to the place where it was found: a series of burials located in the Pazyryk Valley, in present-day Russia.” ref

“Most of the tombs had already been looted in earlier times, but thieves always take jewelry and precious metals, leaving behind what is often of more interest to researchers. Thus, furniture appeared, a cart with the skeletons of the horses that pulled it, everyday items, textiles, and, of course, human remains. Subsequent cranial analysis of these revealed they were Caucasian, although some showed slightly different, Mongoloid features. Two well-preserved mummies due to the cold had special significance. One was a robust man about fifty years old, whose skin bore visible tattoos. Later, infrared analysis revealed that, like the other recovered bodies, he was extensively tattooed; in his case, with a bestiary that included animals such as donkeys, deer, or rams, but also with fantastic zoomorphic figures similar to griffins and other monstrous creatures. There were also aligned circles that likely had a therapeutic function, considering that current Siberian tribes still practice this healing method for the back.” ref

“The other prominent mummy was found decades later, in 1993, by archaeologist Natalia Polosmak: she was dubbed the Ice Maiden (or Lady of Altai, in reference to the mountains where Pazyryk is located), a young, unmarried woman of high social status buried in a wooden chamber tomb surrounded by grave goods that included crockery and a cart pulled by six sacrificed horses. The body rested in a coffin made from a hollowed-out Siberian larch trunk lined with leather decorated with zoomorphic figures. The preservation was excellent because rain had flooded the tomb and frozen, merging with the permafrost.” ref 

Indra’s net (Could this relate to a spider’s web?)

“It is an infinitely large net owned by the Vedic deva Indra, which hangs over his palace on Mount Meru, the axis mundi of Buddhist and Hindu cosmology. The net was one of the weapons of the sky-god Indra, used to snare and entangle enemies. The net also signifies magic or illusion.” ref

“Imagine a multidimensional spider’s web in the early morning covered with dew drops. And every dew drop contains the reflection of all the other dew drops. And, in each reflected dew drop, the reflections of all the other dew drops in that reflection. And so ad infinitum. That is the Buddhist conception of the universe in an image.” ref

“Indra’s net (also called Indra’s jewels or Indra’s pearls, Sanskrit Indrajāla, Chinese: 因陀羅網) is a metaphor used to illustrate the concepts of Śūnyatā (emptiness), pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination), and interpenetration in Buddhist philosophy. The metaphor’s earliest known reference is found in the Atharva Veda. It was further developed by the Mahayana school in the 3rd century Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra and later by the Huayan school between the 6th and 8th centuries.” ref

“Indra’s net” is an infinitely large net owned by the Vedic deva Indra, which hangs over his palace on Mount Meru, the axis mundi of Buddhist and Hindu cosmology. In East Asian Buddhism, Indra’s net is considered as having a multifaceted jewel at each vertex, with each jewel being reflected in all of the other jewels. In the Huayan school of Chinese Buddhism, which follows the Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra, the image of “Indra’s net” is used to describe the interconnectedness or “perfect interfusion” (yuánróng, 圓融) of all phenomena in the universe.” ref

Could there be some lost “Spider” (Spider Woman/Grandmother, like in Native American beliefs?) several-arms connection, between the Multitude of Arms also seen in many Hindu Deities, especially with the female deities?

“The arms are thought to be a visual representation of their divine powers, omnipresence, cosmic order, divine attributes, and timelessness.” ref

A South American spider deity holds a knife in one of the many arms, and the Hindu deities with many arms can also have weapons. “A 3,200-year-old Knife-wielding spider deity mural was unearthed in Peru.” ref

“Yes, the Hindu deities are not averse to a little slaying if needs be! Just ask the Buffalo Anti God (Mahishasura Mardini).” – @ericlinuskaplan.bsky.social

 Xōchiquetzal weaving goddess- Aztec

“In Aztec mythology, Xochiquetzal, also called Ichpochtli, meaning “maiden”, was a goddess associated with concepts of fertility, beauty, and female sexual power, serving as a protector of young mothers and a patroness of pregnancy, childbirth, and the crafts practised by women such as weaving and embroidery. In pre-Hispanic Maya culture, a similar figure is Goddess I.” ref

“The name Xōchiquetzal is a compound of xōchitl (“flower”) and quetzalli (“precious feather; quetzal tail feather”). In Classical Nahuatl morphology, the first element in a compound modifies the second, and thus the goddess’ name can literally be taken to mean “flower precious feather”, or ”flower quetzal feather”. Her alternative name, Ichpōchtli, corresponds to a personalized usage of ichpōchtli (“maiden, young woman”).” ref

“Unlike several other figures in the complex of Aztec female earth deities connected with agricultural and sexual fecundity, Xochiquetzal is always depicted as an alluring and youthful woman, richly attired and symbolically associated with vegetation and in particular flowers. By connotation, Xochiquetzal is also representative of human desire, pleasure, and excess, appearing also as patroness of prostitutes and artisans involved in the manufacture of luxury items.” ref

“She was followed by a retinue consisting of birds and butterflies. Worshippers wore animal and flower masks at a festival, held in her honor every eight years. Her twin was Xochipilli and her husband was Tlaloc, until Tezcatlipoca kidnapped her and she was forced to marry him. At one point, she was also married to Centeotl and Xiuhtecuhtli. By Mixcoatl, she was the mother of Quetzalcoatl.” ref

“Ichpōchtli is an alternative form of Xochiquetzal representative of beauty, sex, crafts, fertility, dance, music, singing, weaving, magic, and love spells. Marigolds are sacred to her. Anthropologist Hugo Nutini identifies her with the Virgin of Ocotlan in his article on patron saints in Tlaxcala. she was also the aztec goddesss called the great goddess or teotihuacan spider woman.” ref

SPIDER SYMBOLISM AND SPIDER SPIRITUAL MEANING

“Spider symbolism is one of effortless creation, weaving one’s destiny, flowing with the rivers of life, stepping into your personal power, and capturing opportunities that come your way.” ref

Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast (famously skilled in weaving)

Philosophy and Religion of the Tlingit: Indigenous Peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast

“Spider Woman is also a weaver in the beliefs of the Tlingit of North America’s Northwest Coast. In a story of the Achumawi of Northern California, when Spider Woman and her sons stopped the rain and brought back the sun, they were rewarded with the rainbow that glistens in their web.” ref

Tlingit Dictionary

“Tlingit: Indigenous Peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast”

• -aasgutuyiksháa (compound noun) spider | “women in the woods” | aas-gutú-yík-sháa → tree.forest.in-(shallow container).women
• –g̱ eiwú (relational noun) web (of spider) | “in between the folds” | (KE)
• -aasgutuyik.ádi (compound noun) spider | “thing in the woods” | aas-gutú-yík-át-i → tree.forest. in-(shallow container).thing-(4n.i).[relational] • DRJ
• -kanas.aadí (compound noun) insect: crawling insect; spider | “crawling creature” | ka-na-s√. aat-í → hsf.[na-conj].s-(–d,s,–i).√walk/go- (plural).[relational] • (KE)
• -xʼéix̱ (noun) crab: king crab; crab: spider crab | (KE)
• -crab: spider crab xʼéix
• -spider ⑴aadí || ⑵ aasgutuyiksháa || ⑶ aasgutuyik.ádi
• -weave ⑴ √aak ¹ | weave bark or roots ⒜ O-S-∅-√. aak ¹ | for S to weave O (using tree roots or bark) || ⒝ S-d+∅-√.aak ¹ | for S to weave (using tree roots or bark) || ⑵ √nei ³ | weave yarns ⒜ O-kaS-s-√nei ³ | for S to make O (cloth of any kind) (by weaving, knitting, or crocheting); for S to make or mend O (net) || ⒝ ka-S-d+s-√nei ³ | for S to knit, weave, or crochet
• -web (of spider) –g̱ eiwú
• -webbing g̱ eiwú ref

Spider Woman Comes In – Kadusné

Tlingit clan “Tsaagweidí” – (Killer Whale)

“Spider-Woman feels it all. Her threads are an extension of a realm that came before her and reach into those beyond, in a meditation that allows her to move with great care, patience, precision, and tenderness. May the women who wear her “Tsaagweidí-style” be emboldened with Spider’s compassion for all beings, even — and especially — those who cannot hear or see the way.” ref

“The Tlingit clans of Southeast Alaska, in the United States, are one of the Indigenous cultures within Alaska. The Tlingit people also live in the Northwest Interior of British Columbia, Canada, and in the southern Yukon Territory. There are two main Tlingit lineages or moieties within Alaska, which are subdivided into a number of clans and houses. The Tlingit people of Southeast Alaska have multiple moieties (otherwise known as descent groups) in their society, each of which is divided into a number of clans. Each clan has its own history, songs, and totems, and each forms a social network of extended families which functions as a political unit in Tlingit society.” ref

“The moieties of the Tlingit society are the Raven (Yéil) and Eagle, Wolf, killerwhale, Frog, Thunderbird and hummingbird and butterfly. The sumilarity to moiety names are because its primary crests differ between the north and the south regions of Tlingit territory, probably due to influence from the neighboring tribes of Haida, Tsimshian and Nisga’a. Each moiety is further subdivided into clans, and each clan is subdivided into houses.” ref

Clan names, crests and political structure

“The Tlingit clans have names whose meaning typically reflects the foundation story of the clan. The clans are usually referred to in English by the name of their primary crest, such as Deisheetaan being called “Beaver Clan”. This is not accurate since some crests may be held by multiple clans. Clans of opposite moieties occasionally claim the same crest, but such irregular ownership is usually due to a debt owed by some other clan; until the debt is paid, the clan holding the debt claims the crest of the clan which owes the debt, as a means of shaming it.” ref

“Clan allegiance is governed through a matrilineal system; children are born to the mother’s clan and gain their status within her family, including what was traditionally hereditary leadership positions. The parents are required to be from differing clans and be opposite moieties; the children are born from the father, but he has a lesser role in their rearing than does the mother’s brothers.” ref

“Not all clans listed below are extant; some have been absorbed into other clans; others have died out due to the lack of female descendants, and a few have been lost to history. Not all the clans are independent, since clans formed in a long and fluid process. For instance, the Kak’weidí descend from the Deisheetaan. Some members claim that they are a “house” within the Deisheetaan clan; others claim that they are a small but fully independent clan. In the list below the Tlingit name of the clan is given with its primary crest in parentheses, followed by the various kwáan (region or village) in which they are found. Known houses are listed beneath each clan.” ref

Clans of the Raven moiety (Yéil naa)

• Gaanax.ádi — Galyáx, Xunaa, T’aaku, Aak’w, S’awdáan, Takjik’aan, Taant’a
• Táakw.aaneidí
• L’uknax.ádi (Coho salmon)
• Gaanaxteidee (hibernation frog/strong man/wood worm)
• T’éex’.ádi
• Ishkeetaan/Ishkahítaan (Ganaxteidee) (Hibernation Frog) same as Ganaxteidee (di)
• X’at’ka.aayí
• Koosk’eidí/Xaas híttaan
• X‘alchaneidí
• Kiks.ádi (Frog/Herring, Rock)
• Teeyhíttaan
• Teeyineidí
• Deisheetaan (BEAVER also use of Dragonfly) —
• Aanx‘aakíttaan/Aanx‘aak híttaan
• L’eeneidí (Dog Salmon)
• T’akdeintaan (Sea Pigeon/Tern)
• L’ukwaax.ádi
• Noowshaka.aayí
• Kwáashk’ikwáan/Kwáashk’ Kwáan
• Weix‘hineidí
• Yéeskaneidí
• L’ookwhineidí
• Kuyeidí
• Téel’ híttaan
• Sakwteeneidí/Sukwteeneidí
• Kijookw híttaan/Gijookw híttaan
• Taneidí
• Kookw híttaan
• Kayaa.ádi
• Tukwyeidí/Tukwweidí
• Kaasx‘agweidí
• Taalkweidí
• Kuyéik‘.ádi
• HeHL -non Tlinget Indigenous Peoples (Raven Moieties- Bear/Badger/Wolf/Sea Monster) ref

Clans of the Eagle/Wolf moiety (Ch’aak’/Gooch naa)

• Kaagwaantaan (Wolf)
• Yanyeidí
• Lkweidi
• Teikweidí (Brown Bear)
• Dagisdinaa
• Jishkweidí
• Dakl’aweidí -(House/Killer Whale Clan/Wolf Clan)
• Shangukeidí – (Thunderbird)
• Wooshkeetaan – (Shark)
• Chookaneidí – (Glacier Bear)
• Kadakw.ádi
• Tsaateeneidí
• S’eet’kweidí
• Kookhittaan – (Bear)
• Kóok Hít | Box House
• Tsaagweidí – (Killer Whale)
• Nees.ídi
• Was’ineidí – (Auklet) BEAR Kéex‘ Kwáan
• Tax‘ Hít | Teir/Platform/Bench House
• Naasteidí
• Kayaashkeiditaan
• Naanyaa.aayí (House/Killer Whale Clan/Wolf)
• Sik’nax.ádi
• Xook’eidí
• Kaax‘oos.hittaan
• Neix.ádi (Eagle/Beaver/Halibut) ref

“Raven Tales are unique to Tlingit culture. Although the tales are associated with the Raven moiety, most are shared by any Tlingit regardless of clan affiliation and make up of the stories told to children. Raven Cycle stories are often shared anecdotally, the telling of one inspiring the telling of another. Many are humorous; some are serious, imparting Tlingit morality and ethics, and others belong to specific clans and may only be shared with permission. Some of the most popular are Pacific Northwest tribal creation myths.” ref

“The Raven Cycle stories have 1 Raven characters, although most storytellers do not clearly distinguish them. One character is the creator, Raven, who is sometimes identical to the Owner of Daylight. The other is the childish Raven: selfish, sly, conniving, and hungry. Comparing several stories reveals logical inconsistencies between the two, which is usually explained by their setting in a mythical place and time in which the rules of the modern world did not apply.” ref

The Box of Daylight

The most familiar story of is The Box of Daylight, in which Raven steals the stars, the moon, and the sun from Naas-sháki Yéil (or Naas-sháki Shaan, the old man of the raven tribe at the head of the Nass River). The old man is wealthy, and owns three boxes which contain the stars, the moon, and the sun. Raven wants them for a variety of reasons (such as wanting to admire himself in the light or wanting light to find food easily), transforms himself into a hemlock needle and drops into the water cup belonging to the old man’s daughter while she picks berries. She becomes pregnant with him, and gives birth; the old man dotes on his grandson. Raven cries constantly, until the old man gives him the box of stars to pacify him. Raven, playing with it, opens the lid; the stars escape through the chimney into the sky. He later begins crying for the box of the moon, and the old man gives it to him after blocking the chimney. Raven plays with it, rolls it out the door and it escapes into the sky. Raven finally begins crying for the box of the sun, and the old man gives it to him. Knowing that he cannot roll it out the door or toss it up the chimney (because he is being watched), he waits until everyone is asleep, changes into his bird form, grasps the sun in his beak and flies out the chimney. Raven shows the others his sun; when he opens the box the sun flies up into the sky, where it has been ever since.” ref

Tlingit migration

“The Tlingit tell a story, with slight variations, of how they came to their lands. The story varies primarily in location, with some versions referring to specific rivers and glaciers; one describes the relationship with their inland Athabaskan-speaking neighbors. Stories are considered property in Tlingit culture, and sharing a story without its owners’ permission is a breach of Tlingit law. Stories about the Tlingit people as a whole, the creation myths and other universal records, however, are usually considered the property of the tribe and may be shared without restriction. It is important that the details be correct, to preserve the story’s accuracy.” ref

“One version begins with the Athabaskan (Ghunanaa) people of interior Alaska and western Canada: a land of lakes and rivers, of birch and spruce forests, moose and caribou. Life in its continental climate was harsh, with bitterly cold winters and hot summers. One year the people had a poor harvest, and it was obvious that the winter would bring many deaths from starvation. The elders gathered and decided that a group of explorers would be sent to find a land rumored to be rich in food, a place where one did not have to hunt. Although the group was never heard from again, they became the Navajo and Apache nations.” ref

“Over the winter, many people died. The next summer’s harvest was poor, again threatening the people, and the elders again decided to send explorers to find the land of abundance. This group traveled a long distance, climbing mountain passes to find a huge glacier. The glacier seemed impassable, and the mountains around it were much too steep for the people to cross. They could, however, see how the glacial meltwater flowed down into deep crevasses and disappeared under its icy bulk. The people decided that strong, young men should be sent to follow the river and see if it emerged on the other side of the mountains. Before the men left, however, an elderly couple volunteered to make the trip; the loss of strong young men would be devastating, they reasoned, but the couple were near the end of their lives. The people agreed that the elders should travel under the glacier. They made a simple dugout canoe, took it downriver under the glacier, and came out to see a rocky plain with deep forests and rich beaches.” ref

“The people followed them under the glacier and came to Lingít Aaní: the rich, bountiful land which became the Tlingit home. These people were the first Tlingit. Another theory of Tlingit migration is that they crossed the Beringia land bridge. The Tlingit, in general, are more aggressive than the Athapascan people of the interior. The Tlingit, the fiercest coastal nation (due to their northern location), began to dominate the interior as they traveled inland to forge trading alliances. Tlingit traders were middlemen who brought Russian goods inland over the Chilkoot Trail to the Yukon and northern British Columbia. As the Tlingit intermarried with the interior people, their culture became the norm.” ref

Clan histories

“The main Tlingit moieties are yeil (raven), gooch (wolf) and ch’aak (eagle). Eagle and wolf are the same moiety. All clans fall under one of the moieties. Each clan has its own foundation history, which belongs to the clan and may not be shared. Each story describes the Tlingit world from a different perspective and, taken together, narrates much Tlingit history before the coming of the dléit khaa (white people) .” ref

“A typical clan history involves an extraordinary event that brought a family (or group of families) together, separating them from other Tlingit. Some clans seem to be older than others, and their histories have mythic proportions. Younger clans generally have histories describing a separation from other groups due to internal conflict or the desire for new territory. Although the Deisheetaan clan descends from the Ghaanaxh.ádi, its foundation story tells little to nothing about that relationship. However, the Khák’w.wedí (who are descended from the Deisheetaan) usually mention their connection in their foundation story. Their separation was more recent (and well-remembered) than that of the Deisheetaan from the Ghaanaxh.ádi.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Alaska Native storytelling

 “Alaska Native storytelling has been passed down through generations by means of oral presentation. The stories tell life lessons or serve as lessons in heritage. Many different aspects of Arctic life are incorporated into each story, mainly the various animals found in Alaska. Due to the decline in the number of speakers of native languages in Alaska and a change in lifestyle amongst many of the native peoples, oral storytelling has become less common. In recent years many of these stories have been written down, though many people argue that the telling of the story is just as important as the words within.” ref

“The beginning of the decline of native speakers of Alaska Native languages can be traced back to the colonization of Alaska by the United States of America. At this time, many native people were separated from their traditional lifestyles and subsequently their native languages. Due to a new-found language barrier, new generations of Alaska Natives could not communicate with their elders and therefore could not inherit all of the traditional stories. New technology has also reinvigorated the art through various webcasts and other online mediums; however the amount of native speakers is still declining. Despite the rapid decline in spoken Alaska Native languages, the tradition of storytelling in Alaska remains alive.” ref

“Storytellers pass down myths, legends, and traditions within their tribes. They use inflection in their voices, hand gestures and movement to tell the stories. When performing, tellers wear traditional clothing and other garments. They also bring objects such as carvings, rugs, and pottery to represent the teller’s tribe. Tellers do not censor the stories; the children hear exactly the same stories older generations have listened to. Short tales are often told by anyone who has memorized the story. It may also be told at any time. The stories are retold to the youth to promote proper behavior in their culture; storytellers learn the stories through repeated tellings. Tellers are allowed to change and add to a short story and sometimes seek suggestions from fellow storytellers on what they can correct or add to their tellings.” ref

“Tribes are more strict with traditional tales, which are usually told by the Elders. Storytellers learn long, complicated stories by being apprenticed with Elders. The tellers are required to recite the stories accurately before delivering it to an audience. The stories do not have to be told the same way, but each retelling must include all the elements. Before telling a story, the storyteller begins with a formatted introduction. The introduction includes the storyteller’s English and Native names, hometown, family background, and how they learned the story. If the story does not belong to them, they must also honor the owner or credit the source. Part of storytelling is the interaction between the storyteller and the audience.” ref

“The audience and their response to the story influence how the story is told. The teller reads the audience’s body language and determines how to continue with the story; depending on the response, tellers may choose to speed up, slow down, or finish a story. Storytellers also encourage audience participation to keep the listeners interested in the story. Storytellers do not tell the audience the moral or point of the story; it is up to them to figure it out on their own. During a telling, the audience generates mental images of what is happening and they create different versions of the story. In the end, each audience member leaves the performance with his or her own understanding of the story.” ref

“Nature is a huge part of the lives of Alaska Natives and it has an influence on their story-telling. Alaska Natives tell stories where nature plays a main role. Nature is a great influence in the story-telling because native people have respect for it. The seasons play a large role in Alaska Native storytelling. When the events in a story involve the seasons, the relating elements are used. There are bodies of water, forests, mountains and tundra mentioned in a story when the events in a story are based on seasons other than winter. The spring, summer and fall play a smaller part in Native stories, but when these seasons are used, the story usually involves people hiking in the wild. When the events are based in a season other than the winter, aspects of an Alaskan summer, like longer days and sunshine, are involved.” ref

“The majority of stories are set in winter. Winter is usually described as cruel and harsh, with extremely cold temperatures, heavy snowfall, and biting winds. When the story is centered during winter, the story-tellers will use the forces in nature such as the snow, wind storms, blizzards, and the ice. A massive part of Alaska’s region is covered by glaciers and it influences the storytelling. Plants do not have as vital of a part in the storytelling as seasons have. Some plants and trees are described in the stories that are found in Alaska’s wilds: birch (regular and dwarf), spruce, wild roses, as well as different kinds of bushes. The ice pack and the mountains are often described in story-telling because a large part of Alaska’s country is covered with them, making them a large influence on the Alaska Native peoples.” ref

Animals

“Storytelling in Alaska Native culture is heavily influenced by animals that are a part of the tribes’ everyday lives. Animals are given the star roles in the stories, both the actor and the main theme. The animals symbolize many things such as their beliefs or taboos of a tribe or clan. The stories are told about the marking of seasons, when the salmon come into the streams or when the moose lose their antlers. Animals in story-telling can provide a joyful and humorous experience for the tribe during the winter months.” ref

“Animals can play the roles of tricksters in the stories. Common trickster figures in Native American mythology include the rabbit in the Eastern regions, the coyote and spider in the Plains and the Southwest regions, and the raven in the Pacific Northwest. Numerous animals appear in myths and legends and they rarely have purely animal characteristics. The animals are gifted with the power of speech and human attributes. The animals in the stories interact with people and frequently change between human and animal form. The stories and themes are constructed around one main animal, like for example the badger, loon, and or beaver. These animals are not as popular as the Raven or Crow. The raven and or crow are the most popular characters in native folklore.” ref

“Amongst the many tribes in Alaska, the raven shares the same meanings, such as the trickster, always getting into trouble, events such as bringing light into the world . The raven symbolizes helping the people and shaping the world. These stories about helping and shaping the world are: “How Raven brought light to the World,” a Haida legend, “Raven Steals the Sun,” an Eyak story, “Raven Steals the Light,” an Athabascan legend, “Raven and His Grandmother,” an Aleut story, “The origin of light,” an Eskimo legend, “Raven” a Tlingit story, “Raven becomes voracious,” a Tsimshain legend. These stories all have a main thread running through them about the raven, he is a trickster, but ends up helping the people.” ref

Life lessons

“Many different aspects are incorporated into the composition of a traditional Alaska Native story narrative. There are tales written with the specific purpose of passing history itself on from one generation to the next. In others, pieces of nature that are incorporated can take on a life of their own. Animals can be deified and worshipped or be cast in the part of a trickster such as the raven or coyote. As with any culture, there are stories told to explain a broad spectrum of life‘s aspects, and others are created to express humor alone. Found within many of the stories that have been recorded, some still told today, are a set of valuable life lessons that are handed down through the relationship of the storyteller and the avid listener.” ref

“Woven into a great adventure or a fantastic tale various ideals can be easily recognized within many Alaska Native stories. These ideals are painted directly into the heart of the story making it a great lesson for the avid listener. Such stories are told to teach the young, or to remind someone that has forgotten one of these important principles. Respecting nature, honoring family and tribe, having faith and trust, or getting along with their fellow men are several that are characteristic and thought important enough to pass on.” ref

“Guidance is another prevalent aspect found accompanying the ideals within many Alaska Native stories. This guidance offers warnings against apparent evils such as pride, envy, poor decision making, or committing sins. In one classic Tlingit tale retold by S.E. Schlosser and entitled “How selfishness was rewarded”, a woman uses a magical combination of words to summon fish from the ocean late at night. She then cooks and consumes this fish while her family sleeps keeping all of the catch for herself. Eventually she is caught by her family and is punished for her selfish ways. She is magically transformed into an owl, not by her family but, by the magic she had come so accustomed to. The tale ends with, “To this day, the plaintive hoot of the owl may be heard in the wilds of Alaska, reminding those who hear it of the price a young girl once paid for her selfishness.” The different types of lessons on guidance along with the virtues that are shared and passed along through the tribe’s generations are an important element of the ancient and rich Alaska Native culture and they stories they create.” ref

Salishan oral narratives

“Salishan oral narratives consist of the body of traditional narratives of the speakers of the Salishan languages, who inhabit British Columbia, Canada and in Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon in the United States. Each of the many peoples in these groups have their own stories and each storyteller may interpret them in their own ways, but many of the stories of the Salish peoples are similar and share themes and characters, and share their historical origins in the proto-Salishan culture long ago. The earliest descriptions of the oral traditions of the Salishan peoples were the collections of Nuxalk (Bella Coola) mythology by anthropologist Franz Boas.” ref

“Many Salishan peoples distinguish between two basic genres of narrative, one is traditional stories corresponding roughly to what is called myth in English and which takes place in a Myth Age before the arrival of the modern age, in which plants, animals and weather phenomena are anthropomorphized. The other type of stories includes historical accounts and “news” or informational stories. For the Nlaka’pamux of the Fraser Canyon–Nicola regions in British Columbia, the genre of traditional narrative is called sptékʷɬ whereas the informational narrative is called spíləẋm, in Montana Salish (Flathead) the distinction is between sqʷlú(ṁt) and sṁiʔṁíy, and other Salishan languages have similar pairs.” ref 

“One important difference between Salishan oral traditions and Western literature is that Salishan traditional narratives are not considered to be fictive, or to be the result of the creativity of the narrator, rather they are considered to convey real knowledge of the world as passed down from the elders. The storyteller also does not “own” the story, although the best storytellers do give the narratives a personal flavor. Rather the stories are considered to be pre-existing and to contain all the knowledge of the world. Demonstrating the significance of the traditional narratives, elder Joe Cullooyah of the Montana Salish stated that “Everything you need to know about life is in the Coyote stories — if you just listen carefully”, and asked what happened to Coyote of the Coyote narratives, Cullooyah answered “You believe that Christ is coming back some day, right? Well, Coyote is coming back some day, too.” ref 

From the mythology of the Kalispel, an Interior Salish people

• In some stories from the Flathead storyteller Lassaw Redhorn and the Kalispel storyteller Domicie Michell the supreme deity is called Amotken, a kind, elderly man who lives alone in heaven. He created five women from five hairs from his head and asked them what they wanted to be. Each gave him a different answer: wickedness and cruelty, goodness, mother of the Earth, fire, water. Amotken did as they asked and declared that wickedness would rule Earth for a time, but goodness would win in the end.” ref

From the traditions of the Skwxwumesh, a Coast Salish people

• In some stories told by Skwxwumesh storyteller Louis Miranda the Basket ogress qálqaliɫ was an ugly old woman/ogress that stole children and carried them away in her basket.
• For a more extensive survey of Skwxwu7mesh oral traditions, please see History of the Squamish people#Oral history and History of the Squamish people#Stories.” ref

From the traditions of the Sts’Ailes (Chehalis)

“The Sts’Ailes, who live at Chehalis, British Columbia, have extensive traditions concerning the Sasquatch, whom they regard as another tribe and whom they continue to encounter into modern times. According to Sts’Ailes stories, the Sasquatch speak the Douglas language, i.e. Stʼatʼimc, the version of St’at’imcets spoken at Port Douglas, at the head of Harrison Lake.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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Tlingit, Haida, Eyak & Tsimshian Culture

“The Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and Eyak live throughout Alaska’s southeastern panhandle — the Inside Passage region — sharing many cultural similarities with groups along the Pacific Northwest Coast, from Alaska through Canada all the way down to northwestern California.” ref

“The Haida (HIGH-duh) live on Prince of Wales Island as well as on Haida Gwaii in Canada. The Tlingit (CLINK-it) live throughout all of Southeast Alaska. The Tsimshian (SIM-shee-ann) people live primarily in Metlakatla, Alaska’s only reservation, and British Columbia, Canada. The Eyak (EE-yak) lived in the region around the eastern side of the Prince William Sound and the Copper River delta.” ref

“Southeast Alaska Native peoples are talented craftspeople. Intricate weaving techniques are used to create both functional and beautiful pieces — from baskets for cooking and storage to ceremonial robes, floor mats, and room dividers to clothing and hats. Their carving can be seen on totems and canoes, as well as utensils and ceremonial objects.” ref

“You can visit the Totem Heritage Center in Ketchikan to learn about traditional and modern carving techniques, and to see the craftsmanship of totems hundreds of years old. In Sitka, experience the drumming and hear traditional stories shared by the Sheet’ka Kwaan Naa Kahidi Dancers at the Sheet’ka Kwaan Naa Kahidi Community House. The Sealaska Heritage Institute in Juneau continues the arts, cultural, and language traditions of the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian peoples through workshops, classes, monumental art, and collections.” ref

“The Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and Eyak have inhabited Southeast Alaska for more than ten thousand years. Southeast Alaska’s maritime environment provides plenty. Salmon and halibut, sea plants, berries, seals, moose, deer, and mountain goat remain important food sources today. The water supplies food and transportation, while wood from the tall trees of the temperate rainforest contributes housing and tools. The people of Southeast Alaska were accomplished boatmen and traders and built long canoes out of cedar for traveling.” ref

“Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and Eyak social systems are highly complex. Each of these groups is organized into two equal halves, the Eagle and Raven moieties, which consist of several clans each. The clans are matrilineal, meaning that children inherit through their mother. Traditionally, marriages were arranged between members of the opposite moiety. Southeast Alaska Native peoples built permanent winter settlements, usually a row of plank houses facing a river or saltwater beach. Each clan lived together, with up to 50 people in one house. Seasonal camps were built as needed, near sources of food and water.” ref

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“Here is the history of the sacred textiles known today as “Ravenstail” and “Chilkat” robes. Two dozen robes carry the story of Native weaving among the Tsimshian, Haida, and Tlingit of Alaska and British Columbia, representing both ancient and modern ceremonial robes made by Alaska Natives and First Nations weavers. Woven from the plush white fur of mountain goats, these robes were seen by early Euro-American visitors to the northern Northwest Coast when they contacted First Nations and Alaska Native people. Their use is reserved for sacred ceremonies, where dancers wear them to display the crests of their clans. In the 1900s, only a few weavers carried these unique traditions into the 21st century.” ref

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I added some of my art,

Chilkat weaving

“Chilkat weaving is a traditional form of weaving practiced by Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and other Northwest Coast peoples of Alaska and British Columbia.” The name derives from the Tlingit people of the Chilkat (Jilkháat) region near Klukwan, Alaska on the Chilkat River. The Nisga’a are reputed to have invented the technique, according to some Tlingit weavers, though this is not attested in Tsimshian sources. Chilkat weaving can be applied to blankets, robes, dance tunics, aprons, leggings, shirts, vests, bags, hats, and wall-hangings. Chilkat clothing features long wool fringe that sways when the wearer dances. Traditionally chiefs would wear Chilkat robes during potlatch ceremonies.” ref

“Chilkat weaving is one of the most complex weaving techniques in the world. It is unique in that the artist can create curvilinear and circular forms within the weave itself. A Chilkat robe can take a year to weave. Traditionally mountain goat wool, dog fur, and yellow cedar bark are used in Chilkat weaving. Today sheep wool might be used. The designs used Northwest Coast formlines, a traditional aesthetic language made up of ovoid, U-form, and S-form elements to create highly stylized, but representational, clan crests and figures from oral history—often animals and especially their facial features.” ref

“Yellow and black are dominant colors in the weavings, as is the natural buff color of the undyed wool. Blue can be a secondary color. Looms used in Chilkat weaving only have a top frame and vertical supports, with no bottom frame, so the warp threads hang freely. The weaver works in vertical sections, as opposed to moving horizontally from end to end. Consequently, many designs are broken into vertical columns. As with most Northwest Coast art, these columns are bilaterally symmetrical.” ref

“Kwakwaka’wakw spirits, like those of other Northwest Coast peoples, can be divided into four separate spirit realms: sky spirits, sea spirits, earth spirits, and otherworldly spirits. All four realms interact with one another, and human beings attempt to contact all four worlds and often channel their spirits at sacred ceremonies wherein dancers go into trances while wearing masks and other regalia associated with the spiritworld.” ref 

“Navajo Spider Woman, who, according to legend, taught the people weaving, and Spider-Man, who warned the people of coming danger, could be mean like Coyote.” ref 

Among the Tlingit, they are told that there were “one principal and several subordinate spirits in everything.” A similar conception exists among the Eskimo, the Asiatic Chukchee, the Winnebago, etc. What they find here is a localization of authority. There was at all times an inequality in the importance of the genii loci. The genii loci of the trees were subject to the genius loci of all the trees within a certain area, etc. This conception is quite similar to that of the spirit animal mentioned before. They are not dealing here, however, with an abstraction for the purpose of subjecting a number of individual entities to some unifying principle, but clearly with generic genii loci. It is from this generic genius loci that, in my opinion, such deities as the Hard-Being-Woman of the Hopi, the Spider-Woman of the Pueblos, Sedna of the Eskimo, the Water-Spirit of the Winnebago, etc., were developed.” ref

“All these deities have, of course, undergone considerable re-interpretation and clarification at the hands of the shaman. Dual creators or, better, dual transformers are found in all parts of America. They are a common feature of all their mythologies. Frequently three, four, or five transformers are found, depending upon the sacred number of the tribe. Among the Winnebago, for instance, there are four. The dual creators are generally regarded as equal in power; but one is supposed to be more benevolent than another, and more directly interested in furthering the needs of man. In many areas this antagonism in the character of the dual deities developed a marked Good Spirit and Bad Spirit. This is typical, for instance, of the Central Algonkin, Winnebago, Omaha, etc.” ref

“This postulation of a Good Spirit and a Bad Spirit was not developed by the shaman. It seems to be one of the fundamental folkloristic conceptions of the North American Indians. The Good Spirit and Bad Spirit are merely the spirits-in-chief of the numerous good and bad spirits. Let us see now what the shamanistic reconstructions have done with these dual deities. Where the systematization was very strong, as, for instance, among the Pawnee and Winnebago, the Bad Spirit has disappeared completely. Among the Winnebago he is still found, however, in the popular cycles. He has, it is true, degenerated into a sorry figure; but Earth-Maker confesses himself powerless to destroy him. Among the Pawnee, Tirawa reigns supreme; and there seem to be only hints as to the earlier existence of a rival.” ref

Spider Grandmother

• “Diné (Navajo) Na’ashjé’ii Asdzáá (Spider Grandmother)
• Cherokee Kanene Ski Amai Yehi (Spider Grandmother)
• Hopi Kokyang Wuhti (Spider Grandmother)” ref
• “Zuni has both God Water-Spider and Grandmother Spider
• Puebloan Spider Old Woman equivalent in “Thought Woman” (Keresan Tse-che-nako, Sussistanako)
• South Western “Spider Woman,” may be the pre-Columbian Teotihuacan “Great Goddess” known from pictorial representations.” ref

“Nuu-chah-nulth teaching “Hishuk ish tsawlk” (Everything is One) is environmental and profound. A law that applies to all things from the “spider” to the “Wolf,” from the darkest story to the brightest day. From a dying twisted tree to the brightest songbird singing with life.” ref

Spider woman’s web : traditional Native American tales about women’s power

“Spider woman saves Ko-chin-ni-na-ko: Keresan, Southwest. — Spider woman’s web: Athabaskan, Alaska. — Qi-yo Ke-pe, the great healer: Keresan, Southwest. — The woman whose heart became ice: Micmac, Northeast. — Sedna, mistress of the underworld: Inuit, Alaska. — The worm that devoured women: Cherokee, Southeast. — White star women and great star man: Pawnee, Great Plains. — Ataensie, the woman who fell from the sky: Iroquois, Northeast. — The origin of corn: Abenaki, Northeast. — First woman and the people: Navajo, Southwest. — White buffalo women: Lakota (Sioux), Great Plains. — The buffalo wife: Piegan (Blackfeet), Great Plains. — Sweet corn woman’s tale: Tewa, Southwest. — The women warriors: Tewa, Southwest. — Coyote marries his daughter: Ute, Great Basin. — The abandoned children: White Clay People (Gros Ventre), Great Plains. — The two sisters and their aunt: Miwok, California. — The woman who kept secrets: Hopi, Southwest. — The quilt of men’s eyes: Seneca, Northeast. — The kidnapped wife and the dream helper: Piegan (Blackfeet), Great Plains. — The women who built the first medicine lodge: Piegan (Blackfeet), Great Plains. — The dream of double woman: Lakota (Sioux), Great Plains. — The woman who married the sea: Samish (Coast Salish), Northwest Coast. — The beginning of wisdom and law: Yakima, Plateau. — Dancing for nomtaimet: Wintu, California.” ref 

“There are many depictions of Spider in myth. The most recognizable and the one from which the class of arthropods spiders are named for, arachnid, comes from, is the Greek myth of Athena and Arachne and their infamous weaving contest.  Arachne was a talented young peasant girl who Athena herself tutored in the art of weaving. It had been said that nymphs would abandon their play in the forests just to come and watch Arachne’s lithe arms and nimble fingers work the shuttles and threads. As the girl’s talent and skill grew, so did her pride.  Someone once commented that her skill rivaled that of Athena and that she must be one of her pupils.  In her arrogance, Arachne denied that Athena had ever taught her and even boasted that she was the better weaver. She put forth a challenge to Athena.” ref

“When Athena heard this, she was distressed, so she came to Arachne disguised as an old woman, offering her a chance to redeem herself from her haughty words. She told Arachne that with age comes experience, and she invited her to acknowledge the goddess’s superiority. “Seek all the fame you will among mortal men, but yield place to the goddess.” (Athena to Arachne. Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.30)  All Arachne saw in the disguised goddess was an unknown old woman and she scoffed at her.  “It is too long life that is your bane… Why does your goddess avoid a contest with me?” (Arachne to the disguised Athena. Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.37)” ref 

“Athena then revealed herself, and the contest began.  Both wove with speed and artful skill.  In her tapestry, Athena depicted the gods in their splendor. She also wove scenes of mortals who had offended the gods and the consequences they suffered. She edged her tapestry with olive leaves and branches, which, to this day, are symbols of peace. Arachne also wove depictions of the gods, but not in their glory. She wove their lustful seductions of mortal women. She exposed their weaknesses and folly. Her tapestry was framed with flowers and ivy.” ref 

“When the tapestries were finished, all could see that each one was a masterpiece. No one could find any flaws. Athena was angered by the themes in Arachne’s tapestry, and she tore it to shreds. She beat Arachne about the head with her shuttle. Arachne, shamed, hung herself in an attempt at suicide. Athena took pity on the girl and did not let her die. Instead, she turned Arachne into a spider so she could live, but continue to hang from the ceiling and weave. In this way, spiders were born into the world.” ref 

“In Navajo mythology, the People were taught how to weave by Spider Woman. Today, many Navajo weavers will rub their hands in spider webs in order to absorb the skill and wisdom of Spider Woman before they sit at their looms. Grandmother Spider is said to have created the universe. She wove her web, and when it was laced with dew, she flung it into the air, and the dew became the stars in the sky. Each day as she re-weaves her web, she re-weaves creation and life. Other Native American myths tell of how Grandmother Spider brought fire and the sun to the People. Further, Grandmother Spider is known as the “Keeper of Words.” As she wove her web, she brought writing to the People.” ref 

“Robert the Bruce, King of Scots from 1306-1329, learned a valuable lesson from Spider. After losing many battles and sore from war and toil, he hid in a cave for some rest. He was down-hearted and lacked hope. While there, he observed a spider as she went about weaving her web.  She’d spin her silk and jump to attach it to the next spot, and she’d fall. Repeatedly she would try and fail. Robert began to identify with the spider because of all the times he’d engaged the king of England and been beaten. Still, the spider labored on, and finally, she succeeded. This victory for the spider encouraged Robert the Bruce and gave him hope. He went on to gather his troops, win in battle, and secure the independence of Scotland from England. Allegedly, this is where the saying, “If you don’t succeed, try, try again” came from.” ref 

“In some cultures, the spider is portrayed negatively. In some Eastern cultures, the spider is seen as a trickster. Maya, the Hindu Goddess, means weaver of illusion and is associated with the spider. Spiders are arthropods: arthro->joint, pod->foot. As above, they are arachnids. Arachnids are a class of arthropods with a duo-sectioned body, the head/thorax, which are fused, and the abdomen. Unlike insects, they have eight legs and pincers around their mouths with which they inject venom into their prey. Most spiders spin round webs, resembling wheels. They re-spin their webs every day just as Grandmother Spider re-spins the universe and life every day. After they spin their webs, they lie in wait for their prey. They are very agile creatures, able to balance themselves on the thinnest silk thread they spin.” ref 

“When we look at a spider’s web, we see that it is circular, resembling a spiral and/or a wheel. In the study of symbols, the circle represents infinity, the universe, the All. In Egyptian Hieroglyphics, the spiral represents the process of creation and is a symbol of cosmic energy. The wheel represents the wheel of life, the wheel of the year, cycles of life waxing and waning, giving birth and dying, and giving birth again. The number eight has also been associated with spiders. They have eight legs, and their duo-sectioned body resembles the numeral eight. The number eight laid on its side is the infinity symbol.  Eight in numerology represents patience, perseverance, goals and earthy wisdom.” ref 

“When Spider appears in our lives, we need to ask ourselves some questions. Is a cycle of our life beginning or ending? Are we about to give birth to something new, or is something in our lives about to die? Are we too much in a hurry, and is that leading to failure? Do we need to sit back and wait? Do we need to persevere, or is what is happening in our lives the end of a cycle? Where do we need to create? What do we need to create? What do we need to communicate as Spider has given us words? Or, are we being deceived, by our own selves, or by others? What is our truth, my truth? Do we need to set new goals and work towards them, or reaffirm goals that have already been set?” ref 

“Spider was with me a lot this summer. As they was painting my house, I had a clean brush that they would brush the spiders out of their crevices with. Not ten minutes later, if I hadn’t painted there yet, the spiders would be back. This summer we opened a new nursing unit at the hospital where they work. Before they opened, they was touring the unit with one of the pharmacists. They went into a patient lounge area, and there on the window were three spiders, a sign of new beginnings. New beginnings for the hospital, and a new beginning for me. Perhaps the closest you’ll get to a spider this season is the one in a neighbor’s window or a plastic one that someone sneaks into your lunch as a Halloween joke. Pay attention, though. Spider speaks softly, but has much to teach.” ref 

“Hopi legend tells how tribal ancestors climbed up through three cave worlds along with all the animals. They were helped by two Spirit Masters who were brothers. After time spent in each chamber of the underworld, the people and animals finally emerged from the Grand Canyon into a fourth world, which was the Earth. But darkness blanketed all the land. And the land was wet. The people met with different animals to try to bring light to the world. Spider spun a ball of pure white silk to make the Moon. The people bleached a deerskin and shaped it into a shield, which became the Sun. Coyote opened a jar he had found in one of the cave worlds. Sparks flew out of it, turned his face black, then flew into the sky and became stars. Then Vulture flapped his wings and made the water flow away, forming dry land. The Spirit Masters helped the water flow by forming grooves in the earth, which became the valleys. Different clans then formed with various animal names and traveled to many different locations before finally settling in their permanent homes. The above is one of many different Native American creation myths. Although mythological, the story contains many elements relating to the history and culture of the Hopi. For example, as the legend indicates, Hopi ancestors migrated from various locations to form the tribe. They settled near the Grand Canyon. They lived in arid desert country, depending on natural springs to water their crops. Both guardian spirits and animals played an important part in their elaborate religion. Underground chambers, called kivas, were considered as the doorway to the underworld and were used for ceremonies. The legend also shows how the Hopi were a cooperative and peaceful people, willing to work with others to make their life better.” ref

“In fact, the Hopi name, pronounced HO-pee, is a shortening of their word Hopituh, meaning “peaceful ones.” These people were formerly called the Moki (or Moqui) Indians, probably a name given to them by another tribe. The Hopi were the westernmost of the PUEBLO INDIANS, classified with them in the Southwest Culture Area (see SOUTHWEST INDIANS). They are the only Pueblo peoples to speak a dialect of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Yet like other Pueblo Indians, they were probably descended from Anasazi peoples, earlier inhabitants of the Southwest (see SOUTHWEST CULTURES). The Hopi occupied different village sites on what they called the First Mesa, Second Mesa, and Third Mesa, all part of a still-larger rocky formation called Black Mesa. Oraibi, like Acoma of the KERES and Taos of the TIWA, is one of the oldest continually inhabited villages in North America. These tablelands of Hopiland, overlooking dry valleys, were carved by erosion out of the enormous Colorado Plateau situated between the Colorado River and the Rio Grande. The Hopi homeland has since become part of northeastern Arizona in the center of NAVAJO lands. The Hopi are famous for their religious, intellectual, and peaceful worldview. They called their approach to life the Hopi Way. The Hopi Way refers to varying aspects of existence as a whole, including religious beliefs, the relationship to nature, behavior toward other people, craftsmanship, and survival.” ref

“The Navajo occupied ancestral territory in what is now northern Arizona and New Mexico, plus a much smaller part of southern Utah and Colorado. The heart of their territory was situated on the lower part of the Colorado Plateau between the San Juan and Little Colorado Rivers. In Native American studies, this region is considered part of the Southwest Culture Area (see SOUTHWEST INDIANS). The Navajo, like other ATHAPASCANS in the region, the APACHE, came to the Southwest later than other Indians, sometime before 1400. The name Navajo or Navaho (pronounced NAHvuh-ho), is not Athapascan, however. The PUEBLO INDIANS applied it to an area of land in the Southwest. The Spanish started calling the Navajo by the name Apaches de Navajo to distinguish them from the Apache, and this name has stuck through history. In their own language, the Navajo are the Dineh or Diné, meaning “the people.” They call their homeland Dinetah. For the Dineh, as for all Native Americans, art and religion were intertwined. Art served a ceremonial purpose, as a way to relate to spiritual beings that the Dineh believed existed in both the natural and supernatural worlds. It was also a way to be closer to one’s ancestors and a way to influence the spiritual beings to affect the weather or cure the sick. The Dineh had highly developed art and rituals for these purposes.” ref

“Coyote was one of the Holy People in Dineh religion. Changing Woman, or the Earth Mother, was another. Unlike Coyote, she was always kind to the Dineh and gave their ancestors corn. Spider Woman, who, according to legend, taught the people weaving, and Spider Man, who warned the people of coming danger, could be mean like Coyote. The Hero Twins, who killed the monsters to make the world safe, could also turn nasty. Many more Holy People were part of Dineh mythology. There were also the chinde, who the Dineh believed were malevolent ghosts of dead people inhabiting the earth. Ghosts caused sickness and accidents, they thought. The Dineh also believed in witches, real people who practiced black magic to harm others for revenge or for their own personal gain. In addition to the mythology, poetry, songs, and music of their oral tradition, the Dineh developed an art form known as sandpainting. Other Native Americans painted permanent designs on pottery, clothing, and tipis. Yet Southwest peoples also created temporary drawings on the ground. The Dineh probably adopted this cultural trait from the Pueblo Indians, who might have learned it from the YAQUI.” ref

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Spinning Cedar: Tlingit Weaver and Chilkat weaving

“Originating in the Pacific Northwest, Chilkat weaving is a complex finger-twined weaving style requiring a great deal of expertise, time, and dedication. A single Chilkat ceremonial robe—also called a dancing blanket—can take one to four years to weave. The inclusion of cedar strips in some of the woven textiles is done by Tlinglit weaver Lily Hope boils yellow cedar and then adds strips while spinning the singles for two-ply yarn. She uses her Merino thigh-spun yarns (with and without cedar) for weaving Chilkat and Ravenstail textiles. Lily is based in Juneau, Alaska, and apprenticed in both of these Northwest Coast weaving traditions that use finger-twining techniques. Watching Lily’s hands twining weft and warp as the weaving slowly grows is fascinating!” ref

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The Tlingit of southeast Alaska, produce spruce-root baskets, collected from the young roots of the Sitka Spruce. The bark is peeled from the roots, which are left to cure over the summer. Then, they are split and ready for weaving.

“The Tlingit of southeast Alaska have produced some of the finest examples of two-strand twining; their spruce root baskets exhibit bold geometric designs in warm hues of red, orange, yellow, and brown. In spring and fall, women collected the young roots of the Sitka Spruce, a tradition shared by both men and women today. The bark is peeled from the roots, which are left to cure over the summer. Then they are split and ready for weaving. The baskets are decorated in false embroidery, in which bleached, and often dyed grass is wrapped around the weft; the pattern is visible only on the outside of the basket. Natural dyes were obtained from local materials such as huckleberry, sulphuric mud, moss, hemlock bark, and alder bark steeped in urine. Commercial aniline dyes were popular as early as 1890, marking the beginning of the tourist trade era.” ref

“Utilitarian baskets were used to collect berries, roots, and shellfish for storage and for food preparation and serving. The flat-bottomed cylindrical berry basket is an older form. Large berry, or carrying baskets were worn on the back, and the smaller berry picking baskets emptied into them. Spruce root baskets are flexible and non-rigid; large berry baskets were often stored folded flat. Other forms include open-work strainers, plaques, cups, bowls, and rattle-top round boxes in which pebbles or lead shot were placed inside the lid. As the demand for made-for-sale baskets increased, Tlingit wove new forms, such as trays, teacups, and covered glass bottles.” ref

“Abstract designs often depict patterns observed in nature, such as the butterfly wing, whale’s teeth, path of the woodworm, tail of the raven, fern frond, and flying goose pattern. Realistic designs often portray animals. Other motifs represent aspects of Tlingit culture, such as tattoos and labrets, as well as patterns adopted from Euroamerican items, like Hudson Bay blankets and the Christian cross.” ref

Cedar Bark Weaving 

“The cedar tree was a very versatile material, used by the First Nations peoples of the Pacific northwest. The bark yields a red dye and can be woven into baskets, hats, and spun into fine clothing. The inner layer of cedar bark was carefully removed from the tree, by making a horizontal cut in the bark. A portion of the soft inner bark was separated and rolled up, and hung to dry. When dry. the bark was cut into strips, ready for making mats or baskets. The yellow cedar bark was soaked, boiled, and beaten, similar to the retting process for flax fibers. Garments made from yellow cedar were soft and pliable and were worn to shed the rain. Indigenous artists also work with cedar bark, cedar root, bear grass, horsetail, and other traditional materials.” ref 

Bark-Yarn Spinning: Processing tree bark into yarn

“Bark-Yarn Spinning is the name of a long process which ultimately ends in the production of yarn made from bark-fibres. The technique first originated in Wodila’hei but later, the Halivaara learnt the technique and added their own twists to it, so that it worked with the trees in their region as well. The technique of Bark-Yarn Spinning has been around for thousands of years.” ref

The process of Bark-Yarn Making

1. Bark harvesting

“The bark is first harvested from the forests, trees with high water percentage are desirable since the bark is easier to skin off then. Usually, the bark is harvested from already chopped down trees, so that there is no waste. With some tree-types, it’s a longer process to get the bark off and it has to be chopped off due to being a lot tougher. This is usually what happens when you try to skin a tree in Halivaara.” ref

2. Bark soaking

“If you’re working with bark from Wodila’hei, you can usually skip this step, because the bark is already manageble enough for the next part of the process. If you’re working with Halivaaran bark, you might need to soak it in medium-hot water for half-a-day before going to the next step. This will make it easier to process later.” ref 

3. Bark beating

“The next step in the process is beating the bark with different tools. Hammers and sticks are common choices for beating-tools when working with bark. The bark is beaten until relatively flat so that the individual fibre-strands are easier to tear apart later. With Wodila’heian tree-bark it’ll take around 1-3 hours to beat bark from an entire tree. It might take anywhere from 2-20 hours with Halivaaran tree bark.” ref

4. Bark shredding

“The next part of the process is to tear the now flattened bark apart. It might’ve already fallen apart earlier in the process, but that’s perfectly fine. The bark is usually cut slightly at the top before being ripped into shreds. This takes quite a lot of arm-strength to do and it’s often done in a larger group so no one gets extremely sore arms. The bark has to be torn into very fine strands.” ref 

5. Bark spinning

“Lastly, but most importantly, comes the spinning. You do the exact same as when you’re spinning wool on a spinning wheel, though you have to be very patient with the bark. If you hurry too much, the yarn will be very coarse and not very comfortable to make clothes out of. After the yarn has been spun, it’s usually placed in tubs filled with either fat or oil to insolate the yarn. After soaking for around 2 days, it’s rinsed off, and then it’s ready to be used for clothes-production.” ref 

Weaving bark fiber

“A rough type of textile from bark fiber. First strip the bark from a tree and divided it into thinner strips. Then spin the fiber strips into a rough yarn using a drop spindle. The drop spindle was basically the spindle and fly wheel used in the pump drill. A small stick was tied to the top of the drop spindle to act as a hook to make sure the fibers spun. Tie the bark strips to the spindle and spun the spindle so it twisted the strip. When one strip ran out a new strip was added and twisted into the thread.” ref 

“Then make a loom by hammering stakes into the ground and lashing cross bars to it. Stakes were hammered into the ground to hold every first string while a movable cross bar held every second string. When the bar was lifted a gap was formed where every second string was above every first string. Then when the bar was dropped a gap was formed where the opposite was true. So, in this way the weaving thread could be drawn through over and under one way and then under over back the opposite way. The alternative was to weave by hand which would have taken longer. Collecting, stripping and drying the fiber took a few days to do. Spinning and weaving took just over a day per 70 cm square. The result was a rough material about as stiff as a welcome mat.” ref 

Coastal Salish Weaving

 “The most common materials for weaving wool Coast Salish blankets, shawls or dresses was from using the Mountain Goat and from the wool dogs that were kept by the Coast Salish people. Wool from the mountain goat was a highly valued trade item. The S’Klallam traded with tribes close to the Cascade Mountains and from Canada for the prized wool. The other wool that was used by the S’Klallam people was from the wool dogs.” ref

“The Coast Salish people’s wool dogs were raised for the value of the wool. There is no information as to were these wool dogs originated. All wool dogs were kept separate from the other tribal dogs because to mix with the common dogs would weaken and shorten the wool. The description of the wool dogs was of a small dog with long fine soft hair. The Northwest Coast Tribes were not what is considered an agriculture society, but as a fishing/hunting/gathering. But the raising the wool dogs as a domestic herd animal (there are accounts of native people herding and caring for dogs by native people and early contact explores), means that the Coast Salish practiced a form of agriculture.” ref 

“Separation of fiber bundles from willow bark using sodium bicarbonate and their novel use in yarns for superior UV protection and antibacterial performance.” ref

Spider Wisdom – Creation and Destruction

“Spider, the eternal weaver of webs, has symbolized creation since people first began storytelling. Cultures worldwide have associated Spider with the Creator Goddess, weaving – and through association with women as they were the weavers who spent endless hours creating the fabric to clothe their communities, and feminine power. Female spiders are larger and live longer than males. They are quite capable of defending themselves.  Spider is a strong symbol of Female Power. All spiders secrete silk from glands near their abdomens to create strands. Most create webs with these strands. Though the concept of a spider “spinning” a web is anthropomorphic their association with spinning and weaving rests firmly in the human psyche.” ref  

“Since the 4th millennium BCE, Egyptian Goddess Neith, the oldest goddess of recorded history, was associated with Spider and weaving. Egyptian myth credits Neith with weaving the Universe into being. Often Depicted with a weaving shuttle, she was the weaver of human fate. Another ancient example of Spider’s association with creation, fate and feminine power is the Sumerian Spider Goddess, Uttu. Associated mainly with weaving and clothing – both feminine enterprises – her story hints at a deeper and perhaps more ancient origin. Spiders have eight legs. The number eight, symbol of infinity, figures strongly into Uttu’s asssociation as a spider goddess. Most likely Uttu was also a weaver of fates.” ref  

“Uttu was the daughter of Enki, God of Water and Wisdom. Enki married and impregnated local Mother Goddess, Nintu (a version of Mother Goddess,Ninhursag.) Enki impregnated their daughter Ninsar who then gave birth to Ninkurra who, also impregnated by Enki, gave birth to Uttu. Uttu was warned by Enki’s wife about him but the young goddess was seduced by Enki’s promises of love and marriage. After mating Enki left her, leaving Uttu distraught. Enki’s wife came to console her. She helped Uttu remove Enki’s semen from her body, which then grew into eight plants – fertilizing Earth and birthing the first plants. Enki ate them and became pregnant which caused him great pain. Nintu came to his rescue by birthing eight healing goddesses.” ref 

“The goddess Neith was considered to be the eldest of the Ancient Egyptian deities. She was revered as the Mother of Wildlife and had one of the longest spans of importance in the ancient Egyptian pantheon. Neith was worshipped from early in the Predynastic era through to the arrival of Roman rule. She was the goddess of creation and wisdom and was associated with Spiders, war, and Weaving.” ref, ref 

Old Goddess of Spiders and Weaving

“Neith /ˈniː.ɪθ/ (Koinē Greek: Νηΐθ, a borrowing of the Demotic form Ancient Egyptian: nt, also spelled Nit, Net, or Neit) was an ancient Egyptian deity, possibly of Libyan origin. She was connected with warfare, as indicated by her emblem of two crossed bows, and with motherhood, as shown by texts that call her the mother of particular deities, such as the sun god Ra and the crocodile god Sobek. As a mother goddess, she was sometimes said to be the creator of the world. She also had a presence in funerary religion, and this aspect of her character grew over time: she became one of the four goddesses who protected the coffin and internal organs of the deceased. Neith’s symbol and part of her hieroglyph also bore a resemblance to a loom, and so in later syncretisation of Egyptian myths by the Greek ruling class of that time she was conflated with Athena, a Greek deity of war and weaving.” ref

“Neith is one of the earliest Egyptian deities to appear in the archaeological record; the earliest signs of her worship date to the Naqada II period (c. 3600–3350 BC). Her main cult center was the city of Sais in Lower Egypt, near the western edge of the Nile Delta, and some Egyptologists have suggested that she originated among the Libyan peoples who lived nearby. She was the most important goddess in the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2686 BC) and had a significant shrine at the capital, Memphis. In subsequent eras she lost her preeminence to other goddesses, such as Hathor, but she remained important, particularly during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664–525 BC), when Sais was Egypt’s capital. She was worshipped in many temples during the Greek and Roman periods of Egyptian history, most significantly Esna in Upper Egypt, and the Greeks identified her with their goddess Athena.” ref 

Neith’s Connection with Spiders in Egyptian Mythology

“Neith’s association with spiders in Egyptian mythology is deeply symbolic and meaningful, reflecting her intricate relationship with the cycle of life and death. The spider, as a creature revered by Neith, holds a special place in the narrative of creation and destiny. Let’s delve into the entwined nature of Neith and the spider in Egyptian culture.” ref

The Relationship Between Neith and the Spider

• “The spider was regarded as a messenger of Neith, conveying insights and wisdom.

• Neith’s communication with spiders was believed to provide guidance and knowledge.

• According to legend, Neith created the first spider to aid her in weaving the sacred mortuary shroud for Osiris.” ref

Neith’s Influence on the Symbolism of Spiders in Egyptian Culture

The symbolism of spiders in Egyptian culture was deeply influenced by Neith’s presence and teachings. Spiders became emblematic of destiny, creativity, and the interconnectedness of all things. Their intricate webs were seen as representations of the threads of life woven by Neith herself, encompassing both creation and preservation.” ref

The Spider Goddesses Who Wove the World

“Weaving was an important skill in many cultures around the world, allowing humans to create textiles from natural fibers found around them. For those readers that weave, they will know the magical feeling of creating that comes from weaving, knitting or the like. The creation of an object out of seemingly nothing; that two simple strands of thread can be woven into magical patterns. Weaving becomes a metaphor for creation: we weave our way through our own lives, tangling with the threads of others. Words woven together become stories and songs with which we can share our experiences of existence.” ref

“Now, there isn’t a single mythology that doesn’t love a metaphor, so here a few ways that weaving has been used to tell our stories. We have previously written about the Fates of ancient Greek and Roman mythology. The three sisters that weave in the underworld, doling out the threads of life: Clotho spun the threads for all, Lachesis would measure out the length, and Atropos would make the final cut. These old women were powerful beings, and no one could escape the webs they spun (just ask poor Oedipus).” ref

“In Norse mythology the Norns played a similar role; women who would weave the wyrd (destiny) of all. The three norns associated with controlling wyrd were the sisters Urðr (fate), Verðandi (present) and Skuld (future). The Norns lived in the Well of Urd (destiny) which sat beneath Yggdrasil, the world tree that made up the center of the universe. Beneath the branches they would sit, creating the twine with which they would weave the lives of others. The Norms were said to visit the bedside of each newborn and decide their fate, much like the Greco-Roman Fates.” ref

 “‘Twas night in the dwelling, | and Norns there came, Who shaped the life | of the lofty one; They bade him most famed | of fighters all And best of princes | ever to be. Mightily wove they | the web of fate, While Bralund’s towns | were trembling all; And there the golden | threads they wove, And in the moon’s hall | fast they made them. –Helgakviða Hundingsbana I (The Poetic Edda)” ref

“While the Fates and the Norns dealt with the creation of every individual life strand, some of the other weaving goddesses had a more homogeneous contribution and created life itself. The Spider Woman of the Hopi people of North America is a creator goddess that helped weave life for all people as she aided in the creation of humanity.” ref

“Spider Woman was the third being in existence; the first being was the creator Taiowa, and the second being was his nephew Sotuknang, who created all of the land that made up the nine universes. In Tokpela, the first world, Sotuknang created Spider Woman and asked her to create life:

“Here is this earth we have created. It has shape and substance, direction and time, a beginning and an end. But there is no life upon it. We see no joyful movement. We hear no joyful sound. What is life without sound and movement? So you have been given the power to help us create this life. You have been given the knowledge, wisdom, and love to bless all the beings you create” – Primal Myths by Barbara Sprou” refl

“Spider Woman then began to mold shapes out of a mixture of saliva and clay, and she began to mold all the animals of existence. After she created each one, she would cover it with a cape she had made, woven from creative wisdom itself, and she would sing the song of creation to bring it to life. Once the animals were made, she then turned her arts to the people, bringing them to life by weaving her cape of creation.” ref

“Spider Woman also had a practical nature. The Navajos believe that it is Spider woman that taught the people the art of weaving. Weavers will often perform a ritual where they rub their hands in spider webs before sitting down to work, thinking that it might bestow upon their hands the talent and skill of Spider Woman.” ref

“The Ancient Egyptian Goddess, Neith, was also associated with weaving, many believing she wove the world into existence. There is much debate as to whether this was her original purpose, or whether this was a form introduced with the Greek occupation of Egypt and conflation with Athena.  Some argue that the symbol found both above her head and contained in the Hieroglyphic characters that make up her name is a loom shuttle, a rounded shape with 4 prongs extending out of each corner (It is also believed that this shape was intended to be a shield and crossed bows and she is often portrayed as a goddess of war) .” ref

“Regardless, by the time of Ptolemaic Egypt, Neith was a goddess of weaving. Her earlier incarnation as the embodiment of the primal waters of creation had been replaced by the image of Neith at her loom, weaving the world into being. Her temple in Sais contains the following inscription:

“I am the things that are, that will be, and that have been. No one has ever laid open the garment by which I am hidden. The fruit I brought forth was the sun.” ref

“Creation and life; the many strands that we weave together to create our personal stories. Whether we see creators with bodies made of clay, dirt, and sticks, or even flesh and blood, it is the intangible threads woven together that create animation, life, movement, and destiny. We live in the realm of the weavers.” ref

 Weaving, Spinning — How fiber is rooted in the myths around the globe

“There is a long history of fiber, spinning, and weaving. Not only has it been used to create clothing, ropes, and nets, it has beautified our walls, become covers for our windows, upholstery for our furniture, keeps us cozy at night indoors and out, necessary for various means of transportation, even armor.” ref

“EGYPTIAN

• Isis — teacher of spinning, along with reading and agriculture. She is known for so much more, this little detail about spinning is swamped by the amount of her involvement/ability. Read more about her here.

• Neith — Goddess of crafts, spinning, hunting, war and wisdom. Also called Net or Neit. Also viewed at times as androgynous with no clear gender. Very involved in a number of major stories, Nit is identifiable by her emblems: most often it is the loom’s shuttle, with its two recognizable hooks at each end, upon her head and/or a sheild with crossed bows. Check it out here.
• cool factoid: According to E. A. Wallis Budge (The Gods of the Egyptians) the root of the word for weavingand also for being are the same: nnt.
• Tayet — Goddess of spinning and weaving, and the patron of weavers involved in mummification. There are ramblings that her name derives from the word “shroud”. Peep this.” ref

“GREEK

• Athena — Goddess of art, architecture, crafts, spinning, horses, intellect, oxen, purity, reason, science, war, weaving and wisdom. Also associated with Minerva — Roman Goddess of spinning, weaving, cities, industry, war, wisdom and the arts. She competed in a weaving contest with the mortal Arachne. Athena was so pissed at the cocky and proud (yet technically sound) Arachne and her insulting subject matter portrayed in the tapestry that she turned her into a spider, forever to weave and forever to have her weavings destroyed by humans. Like other goddesses and deities I will be mentioning, the spider/spider-woman/weaver woman related to spiders appears across the globe in myths from Egypt, to Greece, to Japan, to Native American tribes.
• Anake — Goddess of fate, also known as Necessitae. While she’s not a spinning Goddess, Plato had a vision of her spinning the universe; Can you imagine it? The sun, moon and planets were her spindle whorls; the sirens sang throughout the webs of time and fate she wove; while all the souls moved through the strands to and from death/rebirth.
• Philomela -the daughter of Pandion, a legendary king of Athens. Her sisters husband, Tereus found Philomela so beautiful that he raped her, and after cut her tongue out so that she could not tell about her violation. Her loom becomes her voice, and the story is told in the design, so that her sister Procne may understand and so women may take their revenge. Read in more detail how the abuse and censorship of women has been occurring for so long and how clever skills can tell the tale…and gain revenge… the story of the censored voice
• Lina — Goddess of flax weaving — hard to find much on Lina as a Greek myth other than the statement that she is a goddess of weaving. There is a Lina tie in to germanic/saxon myth of Holda (below). Lina’s Ordeal references that she *is* flax in this myth and is see as the female equal to John Barleycorn — linked here for starters (Flax is what linen is made out of)
• Penelope — a human and faithful wife of Odysseus. Penelope has a high lineage that melds human and divine, and is she perhaps secretly Odysseus’ own weaving goddess-nymph, like the two weaving enchantresses in the Odyssey, Circe and Calypso. She was a weaver, always weaving her design for a shroud by day, but unraveling it again at night, to keep her suitors from claiming her during the long years while Odysseus was away.
• Three Fates — Also called the Moerae, Moirae or Parcae or Klothes — Spinners of the thread of life. Chthonic Goddesses who determined the beginning, your fated life and its ending were the personifications of destiny. Daughters of Zeus and Themis (or were created by goddess Nyxwithout the intervention of man.) but in most myths teh fates were eternal and considered together as more powerful than most Gods. No other god had the right or the means to alter their decisions. “No human could blame the fates (Moirae), since there were times he was the only one responsible for his failures.” There is a triad of three women as dieties/matrons/witches in myth across various regions and can be found in Greek, Roman, Slavic, Norse, Germanic tales, in ancient and modern paganism, and even in our movies.
• Clotho “The Spinner” — Maiden — spun the Thread of Life
• Lachesis “Caster of Lots” — Matron — measured the Thread of Life
• Atropos, or Astropos “Unbending” — Crone — cut the Thread of Life.” ref

“BALTIC

• Saule — solstice Goddess of the sun, spinning sunlight and weaving — The Baltic (Latvia and Lithuania) connection between the sun and spinning is as old as spindles of the sun-stone, amber, which is considered a magical substance, that have been uncovered in burial mounds. Some of these spindles have signs of use, not merely symbolic. The family of Saule, Beiwe, and Sol are all intertwined in sun lore in spinning, harvest times, the motions of the sun and moon.. Here is a daily blessing:
• Saule, my amber weeping Goddess creating light like thread. As “Saules Mat” my mother sun, daily blessing your thankful world with light.” ref

“GERMANIC

• Holda — Teutonic Goddess (Frau Holda) of spinners and weavers who teaches, encourages, inspires and rewards the hard workers. Bringer of winter and referenced as the White Lady of Winter and protector of women. She also gathers the trapped souls of children that died before they were named so could not leave this plane. Also mentioned in the tale “Fru Holda” by the Brothers Grimm and accredited with inspiring (albeit maligned and evil versions) the hag in snow white (favorite plants being apple and flax), making a spindle and wheel tools of evil, and even mother goose. Geese are sacred to Holda, and some say she is the source of that storybook character. Her story trails into the Norse stories of Frigg, Bertha and paganic references to Christmas traditions. Other names she is known by in Germanic and Scandinavian folklore, Holde or Holle or Hulda or Huldra.” ref

“JAPANESE

• Amaterasu — Goddess who spins and weaves sunbeam is the supreme deity and divine ancestor of the Japanese Imperial Family and as the sun goddess, was responsible for illuminating the world and for insuring the fertility of the rice fields. Amaterasu was also an accomplished weaver, with many attendants who joined her in weaving the stunning satins, silks, and brocades for which Japan is rightfully famous. The legend of Amaterasu lead us to the sacred mirror, jewel, and sword which collectively became the three Imperial Regalia of Japan.
• Wakahiru — a weaving goddess that is Amaterasu’s younger sister and in some tales Wakahiru is another name used to represent Amaterasu. She is a specialist in needle craft and weaving, known as the dawn goddess and cherishes the handmade craft and the tools of craft.
• Kamuhata Hime — This goddess represents love, arts and relationships, and weaves the stars together. The weavings of tales have magical powers that are utsuhata (woven perfectly) and never need to be cut or sewn. Good thing because the stories of soldiers is you CANNOT cut the tate weavings.” ref

“SLAVIC

• Mokosh — Goddess of spinning, protector of women, their health and their children. She was a protector of sheep and fleece and was tied to water and rain. The close reference of her name to water (mokar = wet) lead to rain being called mokars milk. Her role was also similar to the Sudjaje (the Fates) who give and takes life, spinner of the thread of life, giver of the water of life. There was in 16th century a connection to the Russian fairy tale witch Baba-Jaga. Also known as Mokysha, Mokush. She later evolved into: St Petka, Paraskeva-Piatnitsa — a Goddess of spinning, water, fertility, and health with marriage.” ref

“CELTIC/BRITISH

• Habetrot — Goddess of healing and spinning — Spinning is both Pagan lingo for spell casting and for the turning of the Wheel of the Year. She may have been a Goddess of magic or a seasonal mother/creator. Habetrot is best known for healing powers of her skills with weaving fiber. All who wore the clothing she wove would never fall ill.
• Brigid — Celtic saint and goddess of poetry, healing and smithcraft. She is also a patron of other womanly arts — midwifery, dyeing, weaving and brewing, and guardian of children and farm animals and the patron of travelers, sailors, and fugitives. Also known to have 2 sisters and be a “triple goddess” and is a water deity…” ref

“CHINESE

• Chih Nu — Goddess of weaving -The daughter of the Jade Emperor, she spends all her time spinning beautiful silk robes and lacey garments for the Heavenly Host. She also makes the finest gossamer clouds and her tapestry of the constellations is a work of art. Her story is based on legend of the weaver girl and the cowherd. There are many variables of this tale (here is one and this clarification explains the variables across regions in and around china), but all seem to be the genesis story of a Chinese “valentines day” for lack of a better example. Also referenced by the names of Chih Nii, Chih Hii, Zhi Nu, Zhinü.” ref

“NORSE

• Frigg — spinning Goddess who knows the fate of all men. The Wife of Odin and Queen of Aesir. The only one permitted to sit on the high seat other than her husband Odin. As Goddess of weaving she was associated with weaving clouds and the threads of fate, known as Wyrd in the Nordic tradition. In Scandinavia, the constellation Orion’s Belt is known as Frigga’s Distaff. Her name means “beloved one.” Other spellings of this Goddesses name include Frea, Fija, Friia, Frig and Friggja.
• Bertha — Goddess of spinning — would wander the countryside over midwinter and yuletide — was able to tell if young children and servants were not behaving well, did not finish their chores of spinning wool. Common names also Perchta, Behtra
• Norns, Nornir– The Norse fates. Three spirits who spin the Thread of Life for all living beings, gods, men, giants and dwarves. They are three sisters who live near the Well of Urd at the foot of Yggdrasil. The names of the three sisters are Urd, Verdande, and Skuld. Urd is the oldest of the sisters, and is associated with the past. Verdande is associated with the present and Skuld is associated with possible futures. More often in Norse mythology they are associated with what was, what is and what could come to be. Currently, however, most mythologists believe that Urd means Fate, referring to those actions that have already taken place; Verdandi means Becoming, referring to those actions in the process of taking place; and Skuld means Necessity, referring to those necessary actions that drive the whole process.” ref

What Does It Mean If You’re Dreaming About Spiders?

“According to a dream analyst, the symbolism of a spider in a dream will depend on your personal associations with spiders.” ref 

Utset (Spider) Siberian mythology

“Siberian mythology, influenced by the diverse cultures of the vast Siberian landscape, is a blend of shamanistic traditions, animism, and totemism, reflecting the deep connection between the people and the natural world.” ref

Origins and Cultural Context

“Utset, often depicted or referred to as a spider deity, is an entity found within certain Siberian mythological traditions. The spider, a common motif in many cultures, symbolizes various attributes including creativity, cunning, and the interconnectivity of life. In Siberia, where animism and shamanism have played significant roles, such creatures are often imbued with spiritual significance, embodying aspects of the natural world and human experience.” ref

Mythological Significance

“In Siberian lore, Utset often takes on a role that is multifaceted, embodying both the constructive and destructive powers of nature. As a spider, Utset could be seen as a weaver of fate, connecting the threads of life and death, and weaving the tapestry of existence. This portrayal aligns with the broader themes in Siberian mythology that emphasize the interdependence of all living and non-living elements within the cosmos.” ref

Shamanistic Influence

“Shamanism, a key component of many Siberian cultures, likely influenced the depiction and reverence of Utset. In shamanistic practices, the mediation between the human and spirit world is crucial, and entities like Utset might be invoked or revered in rituals and ceremonies. The spider’s ability to navigate and create within its own realm would resonate with the shaman’s journey through various spiritual planes.” ref

Cultural Variations

“It’s important to note that Siberia is home to a multitude of ethnic groups, each with its unique set of beliefs and mythologies. The depiction and significance of Utset may vary across these cultures, reflecting the diverse ways in which Siberian people relate to and understand their environment and the spiritual world.” ref

Modern Interpretations

“In contemporary times, interest in indigenous Siberian cultures and their mythologies has grown. Figures like Utset are being revisited, both in academic circles and by the descendants of these cultures, often as symbols of cultural identity and continuity. Modern interpretations might view Utset through ecological lenses, highlighting themes of interconnectedness and the delicate balance of the natural world.” ref

“Utset, the spider deity of Siberian mythology, serves as a bridge between the ancient world and modern interpretations, embodying themes of creation, connection, and the cyclical nature of life. As an integral part of Siberian lore, Utset highlights the rich spiritual and cultural tapestry of this vast and varied region, reminding us of the deep connections that all cultures have with the natural world and the mysterious forces that animate it.” ref 

Native American Spider Mythology

“Spiders play important roles in the mythology of many Native American tribes. In Southwestern tribes, spiders are associated with the culturally important art of weaving, and wise spider goddesses give their assistance to the people as culture heroes. On the other hand, many Plains tribes feature Spider as a rough trickster god, ranging from an inappropriate but entertaining rogue in some stories to a violent and slightly deranged criminal in others. To the Osage, spiders were a special symbol of patience and endurance.

“To the Blackfoot, they represented intelligence and skillfulness. The Ojibwe associated spider webs with their dream catchers, a type of traditional hand-woven Ojibwe craft meant to filter out bad dreams which has become popular among many different tribes today. And to many Native Americans, it still is considered bad luck to kill a spider today. Spiders are also used as clan animals in some Native American cultures. Tribes with Spider Clans include the Hopi tribe, whose Spider Clan is named Kookyangwngyam or Koking-wungwa.

Native American Wise Women from the Mythology of Various Tribes

Fox Woman (Ojibwe/Cree wise woman)
Grandmother Woodchuck (Wabanaki wise woman)
Ioi (Chinook wise woman)
Kokomthena (Shawnee wise woman)
Koyangwuti (Hopi wise woman)
Mouse Woman (Haida wise woman)
Nokomis (Anishinabe wise woman)
Nukumi (Mi’kmaq wise woman)
Spider Woman (Navajo wise woman)
Squanet (Wampanoag wise woman)

Native American Spider Gods and Spirits

Inktomi (Sioux)
Niatha (Arapaho)
Nihant (Gros Ventre)
Spider Grandmother (Hopi)
Spider Woman (Navajo)
Vihio (Cheyenne)

Native American Legends About Spiders

Osage Spider Story:
    Osage Indian legend about the importance of the spider.
The Spider Woman and the Twins:
    Hopi legend about the birth of Spider Grandmother and her first creations.
The Story of Spider Rock:
    Legends about the Navajo Indian goddess Spider Woman teaching the people to weave and rescuing a lost Navajo boy.
Legend of Ehep:
    Cree Spider legend about the first people being lowered to earth on a web.
A Spider Myth:
    Lenape legend about the origin of spiders. (We suspect that this is not actually a traditional Lenape story
    at all, but actually a Lenape retelling of the Greek myth of Arachne. Nonetheless it is a nice story.)
The Spider Twins:
    Achumawi (of northeastern California) story about a family of spiders helping the animals to end winter.

https://www.native-languages.org/legends-spider.htm

https://www.native-languages.org/wisewoman.htm

“Achumawi (of northeastern California)  housing, food sources, and seasonal movements therefore also varied. In the summer, the Achomawi band, and other upper Pit River bands usually lived in cone-shaped homes covered in tule-mat and spent time under shade or behind windbreaks of brush or mats.They have a patrilineal society, with inheritance and descent passed through the paternal line. The traditional chiefdom was handed down to the eldest son. When children were born, the parents were put into seclusion and had food restrictions while waiting for their baby’s umbilical cord to fall off. If twins were born, one of them was killed at birth.” ref

Achumawi Religion

“Adolescent boys sought guardian spirits called tinihowi and both genders experienced puberty ceremonies. A victory dance was also held in the community, which involved the toting of a head of the enemy with women participating in the celebration. Elder men would fast to increase the run of fish and women and children would eat out of sight of the river to encourage fish populations.  Spiritual presences were identified with mountain peaks, certain springs, and other sacred places.” ref

“Achomawi shamans maintained the health of the community, serving as doctors. Shamans would focus on “pains” which were physical and spiritual. These pains were believed to have been put on people by other, hostile shamans. After curing the pain, the shaman would then swallow it. Both men and women held the role of shaman. A shaman was said to have a fetish called kaku by Kroeber or qaqu by Dixon. Kroeber relied upon Dixon’s work in this part of California. (The letter q was supposed to represent a velar spirant x, as in Bach, in the system generally used at that time for writing indigenous American languages. The Achumawi Dictionary does not have this word.) Dixon described the qaqu as a bundle of feathers which were believed to grow in rural places, rooted in the earth, and which, when secured, dripped of blood constantly. It was used as an oracle to locate pains in the body. Quartz crystal was also revered within the community and was obtained by diving into a waterfall. In the pool in the waterfall the diver would find a spirit (like a mermaid) who would lead the diver to a cave where the crystals grew. A giant moth cocoon, which symbolized the “heart of the world”, was another fetish, and harder to obtain.” ref

“In their networks with neighboring cultures Achomawi exchanged their furs, basketry, steatite, rabbit-skin blankets, food and acorn in return for goods such as epos root, clam beads, obsidian and other goods. Through these commercial dealings goods from the Wintun (iqpiimí – ″Wintun people″, númláákiname – Nomlaki (Central Wintu people)), Modoc and possibly the Paiute (aapʰúy – ″stranger″) were transported by the Achomawi. Eventually they would also trade for horses with the Modoc. The Achomawi used beads for money, specifically dentalia.” ref

Achomawi Puberty rites

“A girl would begin her puberty ritual by having her ears pierced by her father or another relative. She would then be picked up, dropped, and then hit with an old basket, before running away. During this part, her father would pray to the mountains for her. The girl would return in the evening with a load of wood, another symbol of women’s roles within the community, like the basket. She would then build a fire in front of her house and dance around it throughout the night, with relatives participating; around the fire or inside the house. Music would accompany the dance, made by a deer hoof rattle. During the ritual time, she would have herbs stuffed up her nose to avoid smelling venison being cooked. In the morning, she would be picked up and dropped again, and she would run off with the deer hoof rattle. This repeated for five days and nights. On the fifth night, she would return from her run to be sprinkled with fir leaves and bathed, completing the ritual.” ref

“Boys’ puberty rites were similar to the girls ritual but adds shamanistic elements. The boys ears are pierced, and then he is hit with a bowstring and runs away to fast and bathe in a lake or spring. While he is gone, his father prays for the mountains and the Deer Woman to watch over the boy. In the morning, he returns, lighting fires during his trip home and eats outside the home and then runs away again. He stays several nights away, lighting fires, piling up stones and drinking through a reed so that his teeth would not come into contact with water. If he sees an animal on the first night in the lake or spring or dream of an animal; that animal would become his personal protector. If the boy has a vision like this, he will become a shaman.” ref

Achomawi Basket-making

“The Achomawi follow in the tradition of other California tribes, with their skills in basketry. Baskets are made of willow and are colored with vegetable dyes. Their basketry is twined, and compared to the work of the Hupa and Yurok are described as being softer, larger, and with designs that lack the focus on one horizontal band. The shapes are similar to those made by the Modoc and have slightly rounded bottoms and sides, wide openings and shallow depth. Baskets sizes and shapes depend on the intended use. Some baskets are created for women to wear as caps, some for cooking on hot stones, holding semi-liquid food or water.” ref

“Willow rods are used for the warp and pine root is used for the weft. In the caps, only tule fiber is used. A burden basket was also made by the Achomawi, as was a mesh beater which would be used to harvest seeds into the burden baskets, made of willow or a mix of willow and pine root. Most baskets are covered in a light white overlay of xerophyllum tenax, though it is believed that those covered in xerophyllum tenax are for trade and sale only, not for daily use. The xerophyllum tenax protects the baskets artwork and materials when used, helpful for when boiling or holding water.” ref 

The First Rainbow (with Spider Woman, Coyote, Silver Gray Fox, and the Spider Twins) – Achomawi Myth

“Sixty little spider children shivered as they slept. The snow had fallen every day for months. All the animals were cold, hungry, and frightened. Food supplies were almost gone. No one knew what to do. Blue Jay and Redheaded Woodpecker sang and danced for Silver Gray Fox, the creator, who floats above the clouds. Since Silver Gray Fox, had made the whole world with a song and a dance, Blue jay and Woodpecker hoped to be answered with blue skies. But the snow kept falling.” ref

“Finally, the animals decided to ask Coyote. Coyote had been around a long time, almost since the beginning. They thought that he might know how to reach Silver Gray Fox. They went to the cave where Coyote was sleeping, told him their troubles, and asked for help. “Grrrrowwwlll…go away,” grumbled Coyote, “and let me think.” ref

“Coyote stuck his head into the cold air outside and thought till he caught an idea. He tried singing in little yelps and loud yowls to Silver Gray Fox. Coyote sang and sang, but Silver Gray Fox didn’t listen, or didn’t want to. After all, it was Coyote’s mischief-making when the world was new that had caused Silver Gray Fox to go away beyond the clouds in the first place. Coyote thought he’d better think some more.” ref

“Suddenly he saw Spider Woman swinging down on a silky thread from the top of the tallest tree in the forest. Spider Woman’s been on Earth a long, long time, Coyote thought. She’s very wise. I’ll ask her what to do. Coyote went to the tree and lifted his ears to Spider Woman. “Spider Woman, O wise weaver, O clever one,” called Coyote in his sweetest voice. “We’re all cold and hungry and everyone’s afraid this winter will never end. Silver Gray Fox didn’t seem to notice. Can you help?” asked Coyote.” ref

“Spider Woman swayed her shining black body back and forth, back and forth, thinking and thinking, thinking and thinking. Her eight black eyes sparkled when she spoke, “I know how to reach Silver Gray Fox, Coyote, but I’m not the one for the work. Everyone will have to help. You’ll need my two youngest children, too. They’re little and light as dandelion fluff, and the fastest spinners in my web.” Spider Woman called up to her two littlest ones. “Spinnnnnn! Spinnnnnn!” ref

“They came down fast, each spinning on eight little legs, two fine, black twin Spider Boys, full of curiosity and fun. Spider Woman said, “My dear little quick ones, are you ready for a great adventure?” “Yes! Yes! We’re ready!” they cried. Spider Woman told them her plan, and the Spider Boys set off with Coyote in the snow. They hadn’t gone far when they met two White-Footed Mouse Brothers rooting around for seeds to eat. Coyote told them Spider Woman’s plan. “Will you help?” he asked. “Yes! Yes! We’ll help!” they squeaked.” ref

“So, they all traveled the trail towards Mount Shasta until they met Weasel Man looking hungry and even leaner than usual. Coyote told Weasel Man his plan. “Will you help?” asked Coyote. “Of course,” rasped Weasel Man, who joined them on the trail. Before long they came across Red Fox Woman swishing her big fluffy tail through the bushes. “Will you help?” asked Coyote. “Of course, I’ll come,” crooned Red Fox Woman. Then Rabbit Woman poked her head out of her hole. “I’ll come too.” She sneezed, shivering despite her thick fur.” ref

“Meadowlark wrapped a winter shawl around her wings, and trudged after the others along the trail to the top of Mount Shasta. The snow had stopped, but the sky was still cloudy. On top of Mount Shasta, Coyote barked, “Will our two best archers step forward?” The two White Footed Mouse Brothers proudly lifted their bows. “Everyone listen,” barked Coyote. “If any one of us is only half-hearted, Spider Woman’s plan will fail.” ref

“To get through the clouds to Silver Gray Fox, we must each share our powers, our thoughts, our dreams, our strength, and our songs whole-heartedly. Now, you White-Footed Mouse Brothers, I want you to shoot arrows at exactly the same spot in the sky.” Turning to the others, Coyote said, “Spider Boys, start spinning spider silk as fast as you can. Weasel Man, White-Footed Mouse Brothers, Red Fox Woman, Rabbit Woman, and I will sing and make music. We must sing with all our might or the Spider Boys won’t make it.” “One!” called Coyote. Everyone got ready. “Two!” counted out Coyote. The animals drew in deep breaths.” ref

“The Mouse Brothers pulled back their bowstrings. “Three!” said the Coyote. Two arrows shot straight up and stuck at the same spot in the clouds. “Whiff! Wiff! Wiff Wiff!”, sang the White Footed Mouse Brothers. “Yiyipyipla!”, sang Red Fox Woman. “Wowooooolll!” sang Coyote. Rabbit Woman shook her magic rattle. Weasel Man beat his very old and worn elk-hide drum. The Spider Boys hurled out long lines of spider silk, weaving swiftly with all their legs. The animals sang up a whirlwind of sound to lift the spider silk until it caught on the arrows in the clouds. Then the Spider Twins scurried up the lines of silk and scrambled through the opening. All the while, down below, the animals continued singing, rattling and drumming. The little Spiders sank, breathless, onto the clouds.” ref

“Silver Gray Fox spied them and called out, “What are you two doing here?” The Spider Boys bent low on their little legs and answered. “Silver Gray Fox, we bring greetings from our mother, Spider Woman, and all the creatures of the world below. We’ve come to ask if you’d please let the sun shine again. The whole world is cold. Everyone is hungry. Everyone is afraid spring will not return, ever.” They were so sincere and polite that Silver Gray Fox became gentler, and asked, “How did you two get up here?” ref

“The Spider Boys said, “Listen, can you hear the people singing? Can you hear the drum and rattle?” Silver Gray Fox heard the drum and rattle and the people singing. When the Spider Boys finished telling their story, Silver Gray Fox was pleased and told them, “I’m happy when creatures use their powers together. I’m especially glad to hear that Coyote’s been helping too. Your mother, Spider Woman, made a good plan. To reward all your hard work, I’ll create a sign to show that the skies will clear. And you may also help, but first picture the sun shining bright.” The Spider Boys thought hard and saw the sun sending out fierce rays in all directions.” ref

“Now, where sun rays meet the damp air” said Silver Gray Fox, “Picture a stripe of red, red as Woodpecker’s head. Add a stripe of blue nearby, blue as Blue Jay’s blue.” The Spider Boys thought hard, and great stripes appeared of red and blue. Silver Gray Fox chanted. “Now, in between, add stripes of orange, yellow and green!” The Spider Boys thought of this and dazzling their eyes, a beautiful arc of colors could be seen across the whole sky above the clouds. It was the very first rainbow.” ref

“Meanwhile, down below, beneath the clouds, the animals and people were so cold, hungry, and tired that they had stopped singing and drumming. Spider Woman missed her two youngest children. Each day she missed them more. She blamed Coyote for the trouble. So did the other animals. Coyote slipped away silent, lonely and sad. Above, on the clouds, the twins rested. Their legs ached and their minds were tired. Silver Gray Fox said, “You did what I asked and kept it secret. That’s very difficult, so I’m giving you a special reward. On wet mornings, when the sun starts to shine, you’ll see what I mean.” ref

“Then the Spider Boys spun down to Earth, and ran back to their mother as fast as they could. Spider Woman cried for joy and wrapped all her legs around her two littlest children. Their fifty-eight sisters and brothers jumped up and down with happiness. All the animals gathered around to hear the Spider Boys’ story. When they finished, the Spider Boys cried, “Look up!” Everyone looked up to see that the clouds had drifted apart and there, like a bridge between the earth and the sky was a radiant arch – they could still see the very first rainbow. The sun began to warm the earth. Shoots of grass pushed up through the melting snow.” ref

“Meadowlark blew her silver whistle of spring across the valley, calling streams and rivers to awake. Coyote came out of hiding, and racing to a distant hilltop, he gave a long, long howl of joy. The animals held a great feast to honor the rainbow, Silver Gray Fox, Spider Woman, the Spider Twins, Coyote, and the hard work everyone had done together. To this day, after the rain, when the sun comes out, dewdrops on spider webs shine with tiny rainbows. This is the spiders’ special reward.” ref

Spider Rock

“Dine (Navajo) Spider Woman made her home on the top of Spider Rock which stands with awesome dignity and beauty over 800 feet high in Arizona’s colorful Canyon de Chelly National Park. Geologists of the National Park Service say that “the formation began 230 million years ago. Windblown sand swirled and compressed with time, creating the spectacular red sandstone monolith. Long ago, the Dine (Navajo) Indian tribe named it Spider Rock. Stratified, multicolored cliff walls surround the canyon. For many, many centuries, the Dine (Navajo) built caves and lived in these cliffs.” ref 

‘Most of the caves were located high above the canyon floor, protecting them from enemies and flash floods. Spider Woman possessed supernatural power at the time of creation, when Dine (Navajo) emerged from the third world into this fourth world. At that time, monsters roamed the land and killed many people. Since Spider Woman loved the people, she gave power for Monster- Slayer and Child-Born-of-Water to search for the Sun-God, who was their father. When they found him, Sun-God showed them how to destroy all the monsters on land and in the water. Because she preserved their people, Dine (Navajo) established Spider Woman among their most important and honored Deities.” ref 

“She chose the top of Spider Rock for her home. It was Spider Woman who taught Dine (Navajo) ancestors of long ago the art of weaving upon a loom. She told them, “My husband, Spider Man, constructed the weaving loom making the cross poles of sky and earth cords to support the structure; the warp sticks of sun rays, lengthwise to cross the woof; the healds of rock crystal and sheet lightning, to maintain original condition of fibres.” ref 

“For the batten, he chose a sun halo to seal joints, and for the comb, he chose a white shell to clean strands in a combing manner.” Through many generations, the Dine (Navajo) have always been accomplished weavers. From their elders, Dine (Navajo) children heard warnings that if they did not behave themselves, Spider Woman would let down her web- ladder and carry them up to her home and devour them! The children also heard that the top of Spider Rock was white from the sun-bleached bones of Dine (Navajo) children who did not behave themselves!” ref 

“One day, a peaceful cave-dwelling Dine (Navajo) youth was hunting in Dead Man’s Canyon, a branch of Canyon de Chelly. Suddenly, he saw an enemy tribesman who chased him deeper into the canyon. As the peaceful Dine (Navajo) ran, he looked quickly from side to side, searching for a place to hide or to escape. Directly in front of him stood the giant obelisk-like Spider Rock. What could he do? He knew it was too difficult for him to climb. He was near exhaustion. Suddenly, before his eyes, he saw a silken cord hanging down from the top of the rock tower.” ref 

“The Dine (Navajo) youth grasped the magic cord. which seemed strong enough, and quickly tied it around his waist. With its help, he climbed the tall tower, escaping from his enemy, who then gave up the chase. When the peaceful Dine (Navajo) reached the top, he stretched out to rest. There he discovered a most pleasant place with eagle’s eggs to eat and the night’s dew to drink. Imagine his surprise when he learned that his rescuer was Spider Woman! She told him how she had seen him and his predicament.” ref 

“She showed him how she made her strong web-cord and anchored one end of it to a point of rock. She showed him how she let down the rest of her web-cord to help him to climb the rugged Spider Rock. Later, when the peaceful Dine (Navajo) youth felt assured his enemy was gone, he thanked Spider Woman warmly, and he safely descended to the canyon floor by using her magic cord. He ran home as fast as he could run, reporting to his tribe how his life was saved by Spider Woman.” ref 

Spider Woman, the Navajo goddess, Spider Grandmother (Hopi)

“Spider Woman is one of the most important deities of traditional Navajo religion. Unlike the Hopi Spider Grandmother, the Navajo Spider Woman is not considered the creator of humans, but she is their constant helper and benefactor. Spider Woman was the advisor of the heroic twins Monster-Slayer and Born-for-Water, taught the people the arts of weaving and agriculture, and appears in many legends and folktales to “save the day,” protect the innocent, and restore harmony to the world. Spider Rock: Legends about the Navajo Indian goddess Spider Woman teaching the people to weave and rescuing a lost Navajo boy. Ziiniyah: How The Corn Was Saved: Bilingual picture book telling the story of a Navajo boy who goes in search of Spider Woman to save his people’s crops. The Magic of Spider Woman: Beautifully illustrated picture book based on Navajo Indian legends about Spider Woman and the art of rug weaving.” ref 

Spider Grandmother (Koyangwuti or Kokyangwuti): Hopi or “Old Spider Woman”

“Spider Grandmother is the special benefactor of the Hopi tribe. In the Hopi creation myths, Spider Grandmother created humans from clay (with the assistance of Sotuknang and/or Tawa), and was also responsible for leading them to the Fourth World (the present Earth.) The Spider Woman and the Twins: Hopi legend about the birth of Spider Grandmother and her first creations.” ref

Grandmother Spider Steals the Sun

“In the beginning there was only blackness, and nobody could see anything. People kept bumping into each other and groping blindly. They said: “What this world needs is light.” Fox said he knew some people on the other side of the world who had plenty of light, but they were too greedy to share it with others. Possum said he would be glad to steal a little of it. “I have a bushy tail,” he said. “I can hide the light inside all that fur.” Then he set out for the other side of the world.” ref

“There he found the sun hanging in a tree and lighting everything up. He sneaked over to the sun, picked out a tiny piece of light, and stuffed it into his tail. But the light was hot and burned all the fur off. The people discovered his theft and took back the light, and ever since, Possum’s tail has been bald. “Let me try,” said Buzzard. “I know better than to hide a piece of stolen light in my tail. “I’ll put it on my head.” He flew to the other side of the world and, diving straight into the sun, seized it in his claws.” ref

“He put it on his head, but it burned his head feathers off. The people grabbed the sun away from him, and ever since that time Buzzard’s head has remained bald. Then Grandmother Spider said, “Let me try!” First she made a thick-walled pot out of clay. Next she spun a web reaching all the way to the other side of the world. She was so small that none of the people there noticed her coming. Quickly Grandmother Spider snatched up the sun, put it in the bowl of clay, and scrambled back home along one of the strands of her web. Now her side of the world had light, and everyone rejoiced. Spider Woman brought not only the sun to the Cherokee, but fire with it. And besides that, she taught the Cherokee people the art of pottery making.” ref

 Grandmother Spider Steals the Fire

(Creation story of the Choctaw People of Tennessee and Mississippi)

“The Choctaw People say that when the People first came-up out of the ground, People were encased in cocoons, their eyes closed, their limbs folded tightly to their bodies. And this was true of all People, the Bird People, the Animal People, the Insect People, and the Human People. The Great Spirit took pity on them and sent down someone to unfold their limbs, dry them off, and open their eyes. But the opened eyes saw nothing, because the world was dark, no sun, no moon, not even any stars. All the People moved around by touch, and if they found something that didn’t eat them first, they ate it raw, for they had no fire to cook it.” ref

“All the People met in a great Pow-wow, with the Animal and Bird People taking the lead, and the Human People hanging back. The Animal and Bird People decided that dark was not good, but cold and miserable. A solution must be found!!! Someone spoke from the dark, “I have heard that the people in the East have fire”. This caused a stir of wonder, “What could fire be”!!! There was a general discussion, and it was decided that if, as-rumor-had-it, fire was warm and gave light, they should have it too. Another voice said, “But the people of the East are too greedy to share with us”. So it was decided that the Bird and Animal People should steal what they needed, the fire!!!” ref

“But, who should have the honor!!! Grandmother Spider volunteered, “I can do it!!! Let me try”!!! But at the same time, Opossum began to speak. “I, Opossum, am a great Chief of the animals. I will go to the East and since I am a great hunter, I will take the fire and hide it in the bushy hair on my tail”. It was well know that Opossum had the furriest tail of all the animals, so he was selected.” ref

“When Opossum came to the East… he soon found the beautiful-red-fire jealously guarded by the people of the East. But Opossum got closer and closer until he picked up a small piece of burning wood, and stuck it in the hair of his tail, which promptly began to smoke, then flame. The people of the East said, “Look, that Opossum has stolen our fire”!!! They took it and put it back where it came from and drove Opossum away. Poor Opossum!!! Every bit of hair had burned from his tail, and to this day, Opossums have no hair at all on their tails.” ref

“Once again, the Pow-wow had to find a volunteer Chief. Grandmother Spider again said, “Let me go!!! I can do it”!!! But this time a bird was elected, Buzzard. Buzzard was very proud. “I can succeed where Opossum has failed. I will fly to the East on my great wings, then hide the stolen fire in the beautiful long feathers on my head”. The birds and animals still did not understand the nature of fire. So Buzzard flew to the East on his powerful wings, swooped past those defending the fire, picked up a small piece of burning ember, and hid it in his head feathers. Buzzard’s head began to smoke and flame even faster!!! The people of the East said, “Look!!! Buzzard has stolen the fire”!!! And they took it and put it back where it came from. Poor Buzzard!!! His head was now bare of feathers, red and blistered looking. And to this day, buzzards have naked heads that are bright-red and blistered.” ref

“The Pow-wow now sent Crow to look the situation over, for Crow was very clever. Crow at-that-time was pure white, and had the sweetest singing voice of all the birds. But he took so long standing over the fire, trying to find the perfect piece to steal that his white feathers were smoked black. And he breathed so much smoke that when he tried to sing, out came a harsh, Caw!!! Caw!!! The Council said, “Opossum has failed. Buzzard and Crow have failed. Who shall we send”!!!” ref

“Tiny Grandmother Spider shouted with all her might, “LET ME TRY IT PLEASE”!!! Though the council members thought Grandmother Spider had little chance of success, it was agreed that she should have her turn. Grandmother Spider looked-then like she looks-now, she had a small torso suspended by two sets of legs that turned the other way. She walked on all of her wonderful legs toward a stream where she had found clay. With those legs, she made a tiny clay container and a lid that fit perfectly with a tiny notch for air in the corner of the lid. Then she put the container on her back, spun-a-web all the way to the East, and walked tip-toe until she came to the fire. She was so small, the people from the East took no notice. She took a tiny piece of fire, put it in the container, and covered it with the lid. Then she walked back on tip-toe along the web until she came to the People. Since they couldn’t see any fire, they said, “Grandmother Spider has failed”!!!” ref

“Oh No”, she said, “I have the fire”!!! She lifted the pot from her back, and the lid from the pot, and the fire flamed up into its friend, the air. All the Birds and Animal People began to decide who would get this wonderful warmth. Bear said, “I’ll take it”!!! but then he burned his paws on it and decided fire was not for animals… for look what happened to Opossum!!! The Birds wanted no part of it, as Buzzard and Crow were still nursing their wounds. The insects thought it was pretty, but they too, stayed far away from the fire. Then a small voice said, “We will take it, if Grandmother Spider will help”. The timid humans, whom none of the animals or birds thought much of, were volunteering!!!” ref

“So Grandmother Spider taught the Human People how to feed the fire with sticks and wood to keep it from dying, how to keep the fire safe in a circle-of-stone so it couldn’t escape and hurt them or their homes. While she was at it, she taught the humans about pottery made of clay and fire, and about weaving and spinning, at which Grandmother Spider was an expert. The Choctaw remembered!!! They made a beautiful design to decorate their homes, a picture of Grandmother Spider, two sets of legs up, two down, with a fire-symbol on her back.” ref

 Old Spider

Spider-Woman shows up in ancient Nazca pottery and weaving in southern Peru. Several traditions identify Spider as the moon. The Witoto say that the highest heaven belongs to her, and the Paressí say that the new moon crescent is a spider covering the orb. The Mapuche say that Lalén Kuzé, Old Spider, taught a girl abducted by an old man to spin. He had demanded that she finish working a huge pile of wool by the time he returned. She was crying by the fireplace when Choñoiwe Kuze, Old Woman Fire, spoke to her and told her not to be upset. “I’ll call the Lalén Kuzé to help you.” And Old Spider soon came crawling down the chimney. She taught the girl and finished the task.” ref

Xōchiquetzal (Her Twin was Xochipilli god) weaving goddess- Aztec

“In Aztec mythology, Xochiquetzal, also called Ichpochtli, meaning “maiden”, was a goddess associated with concepts of fertility, beauty, and female sexual power, serving as a protector of young mothers and a patroness of pregnancy, childbirth, and the crafts practiced by women such as weaving and embroidery. In pre-Hispanic Maya culture, a similar figure is Goddess I. In Classical Nahuatl morphology, the first element in a compound modifies the second, and thus the goddess’ name can literally be taken to mean “flower precious feather”, or ”flower quetzal feather”. Her alternative name, Ichpōchtli, corresponds to a personalized usage of ichpōchtli (“maiden, young woman”).” ref

“Worshippers wore animal and flower masks at a festival, held in her honor every eight years. Her twin was Xochipilli and her husband was Tlaloc, until Tezcatlipoca kidnapped her and she was forced to marry him. At one point, she was also married to Centeotl and Xiuhtecuhtli. By Mixcoatl, she was the mother of Quetzalcoatl. Anthropologist Hugo Nutini identifies her with the Virgin of Ocotlan in his article on patron saints in Tlaxcala. she was also the aztec goddesss called the great goddess or teotihuacan spider woman.” ref

Spider’s Creation

The Sia (Zia) Pueblo people in New Mexico.

“In the beginning, long, long ago, there was but one being in the lower world. This was the spider, Sussistinnako. At that time, there were no other living creatures. The spider drew a line of meal from north to south and then crossed it with another line running east and west. On each side of the first line, north of the second, he placed two small parcels. They were precious, but no one knew what was in them except Spider. Then he sat down near the parcels and began to sing. The music was low and sweet and the two parcels accompanied him, by shaking like rattles. Then two women appeared, one from each parcel.” ref

“In a short time, people appeared and began walking around. Then animals, birds, and insects appeared, and the spider continued to sing until his creation was complete. But there was no light, and as there were many people, they did not pass about much for fear of treading upon each other. The two women first created were the mothers of all. One was named Utset, and she was the mother of all Indians. The other was Now-utset, and she was the mother of all other nations. While it was still dark, the spider divided the people into clans, saying to some, “You are of the Corn clan, and you are the first of all.” To others, he said, “You belong to the Coyote clan.” So he divided them into their clans, the clans of the Bear, the Eagle, and other clans.” ref

“After Spider had nearly created the earth, Ha-arts, he thought it would be well to have rain to water it, so he created the Cloud People, the Lightning People, the Thunder People, and the Rainbow People, to work for the people of Ha-arts, the earth. He divided this creation into six parts, and each had its home in a spring in the heart of a great mountain upon whose summit was a giant tree. One was in the spruce tree on the Mountain of the North; another in the pine tree on the Mountain of the West; another in the oak tree on the Mountain of the South; and another in the aspen tree on the Mountain of the East; the fifth was on the cedar tree on the Mountain of the Zenith; and the last in an oak on the Mountain of the Nadir.” ref

“The spider divided the world into three parts: Ha-arts, the earth; Tinia, the middle plain; and Hu-wa-ka, the upper plain. Now it was still dark, but the people of Ha-arts made houses for themselves by digging in the rocks and the earth. They could not build houses as they do now because they could not see.” ref

“In a short time Utset and Now-utset talked much to each other, saying, “We will make light, that our people may see. We cannot tell the people now, but tomorrow will be a good day and the day after tomorrow will be a good day,” meaning that their thoughts were good. So they spoke with one tongue. They said, “Now all is covered with darkness, but after a while we will have light.” ref

“Then these two mothers, being inspired by Sussistinnako, the spider, made the sun from white shell, turkis, red stone, and abalone shell. After making the sun, they carried him to the east and camped there since there were no houses. The next morning they climbed to the top of a high mountain and dropped the sun down behind it. After a time he began to ascend. When the people saw the light they were happy.” ref

“When the sun was far off, his face was blue; as he came nearer, the face grew brighter. Yet they did not see the sun himself, but only a large mask which covered his whole body.
The people saw that the world was large and the country beautiful. When the two mothers returned to the village, they said to the people, “We are the mothers of all.” ref

“The sun lighted the world during the day, but there was no light at night. So, the two mothers created the moon from a black stone, many kinds of yellow stones, turkis, and a red stone, so that the world might be lit at night. But the moon traveled slowly and did not always give light. Then the two mothers created the Star People and made their eyes of sparkling white crystal that they might twinkle and brighten the world at night. When the Star People lived in the lower world they were gathered into beautiful groups; they were not scattered about as they are in the upper world.” ref

Spider and Sun Mythology

“In California, Chumash Indian mythology states that the Sun God Kaqunupenawa rests by day in a hole in the ground created for him by ‘Spider Woman’, while his rays warm the Earth.” ref

 Ojibwe Dreamcatcher Legend

“This is the way the old Ojibwe say Spider Woman helped bring Grandfather Sun back to the people. To this day, Spider Woman will build her special lodge before dawn. If you are awake at dawn—as you should be—look for her lodge and you will see how she captured the sunrise as the light sparkles on the dew which is gathered there.” ref

“Spider Woman took care of her children, the people of the land, and she continues to do so to this day. Long ago, in the ancient world of the Ojibwe Nation, the Clans were all located in one area called Turtle Island. When the Ojibwe Nation dispersed to the four corners of North America, Spider Woman had a difficult time making journeys to all those baby cradle boards, so the mothers, sisters, and grandmothers weaved magical webs for the new babies using willow hoops and sinew. The shape of the circle represents how Grandfather Sun travels across the sky.” ref

“The dreamcatcher filters out the bad dreams and allows only good thoughts to enter into our minds when we are asleep. A small hope in the center of the dreamcatcher is where the good dreams come through. With the first rays of sunlight, the bad dreams will perish.” ref

“When we see little Spider Woman, we should not fear her, but instead respect and protect her. In honor of their origin, many dreamcatchers have eight points where the web connects to the hoop (eight points for Spider Woman’s eight legs). Some people place a feather in the center of the dreamcatcher, to symbolize breath or air. From the cradle board, a baby can watch the air play with the feather and be happily entertained with the blowing feather.” ref

Ojibwe Gods

“The Ojibwe are a part of the Anishinaabe culture of the Great Lakes Region of the United States and Canada. Other tribes that are culturally (and linguistically) related to the Ojibwe are the Odawa, the Potawatomi, and other Algonquin peoples. Religious beliefs and accompanying stories are passed down by way of oral tradition. For those tribal groups that were involved with Midewiwin, the Grand Medicine Society, religious beliefs were communicated through both birch bark scrolls (wiigwaasabak) and oral teachings.” ref

Asibikaashi

“Asibikaashi, the Spider Woman, is also known as Spider Grandmother. She is a repeating character in several Native American myths, especially amongst those ancestrally tied to the American Southwest. Amongst the Ojibwe, Asibikaashi is a defensive entity. Her webs connect and safeguard the people. The use of dreamcatchers as protective charms amongst the Ojibwe originated from the myth of the Spider Woman.” ref

Gitchi Manitou

“Gitchi Manitou – within Anishinaabe tribal beliefs – was the god that created the Anishinaabe and other surrounding Algonquin tribes.” ref

Wenabozho

“Wenabozho is a trickster spirit and a helper of the Ojibwe. He teaches them important skills and life lessons. Depending on the variation, Wenabozho is either the demi-god child of the West Wind or of the Sun. He would be affectionately called Nanabozho by his grandmother, the woman who raised him. To highlight his trickery, Wenabozho is described as a shapeshifter. He prefers to shift into animals that are known for their cunning: rabbits, ravens, spiders, or coyotes.” ref

Chibiabos

“In Ojibwe mythology, Chibiabos was a brother of Wenabozho. Most of the time, the pair were thought to be twin brothers. They were inseparable. When Chibiabos is murdered by water spirits, Wenabozho is devastated. Eventually, Chibiabos becomes the Lord of the Dead. He is associated with wolves.” ref

Navajo Gods

“The Navajo people are currently the largest Native American tribe in North America, having claimed to surpass the Cherokee in official enrollment recently. As with the Apache, Navajo languages are descended from southern Athabascan, indicating a close relationship between the tribes.” ref

Yebitsai

“The “talking god,” Yebitsai is thought to be the head of the Navajo deities. He doles out orders, gives advice, and is an all-around charismatic, confident leader. In myths, Yebitsai speaks through a variety of different animals when wanting to communicate with mortals.” ref

Naestsan and Yadilyil

“Naestsan, an earth goddess linked to the cultivation of food plants, is married to the sky god, Yadilyil. They are the parents of Estsanatlehi (the Changing Woman), Yolkaiestsan (the White-Shell Woman), and Coyote; moreover, they are thought to be the oldest deities in the pantheon. It is believed that half of the year belongs to Naestsan while the other half belongs to Yadilyil.” ref

Tsohanoai

“The “sun-bearer,” Tsohanoai is the Navajo god of the sun, which acts as his shield. He is credited with the creation of a large hunting game. In Navajo mythology, Tsohanoai is the husband of the goddess of seasons, Estsanatlehi. With her, he is the father of two children: the god of war and the god of fishing.” ref

Naste Estsan

“As Spider Mother, Naste Estsan is involved in many stories: whether she be the mother of monsters, or the mother of the evil god, Yeitso, who rules the monsters. She had taught Navajo women how to weave and had a penchant for mischief. In some tales, Naste Estsan is a boogeyman of sorts who steals and consumes misbehaving children.” ref

Pueblo Gods

“The Puebloan religion has a great focus placed on kachina: benevolent spirits. The Pueblo native peoples include the Hopi, Zuni, and Keres. Within these tribes, over 400 kachinas are acknowledged. Religion as a whole emphasized life, death, and the roles of intermediary spirits. Most of the time, kachina are blessed, benevolent forces; evil spirits amongst them are uncommon.” ref

Hahai-i Wuhti

“Hahai-i Wuhti is alternatively known as Grandmother kachina. She is Mother Earth, and the wife of the Chief of all Kachinas, Eototo. Her spirit is a nourishing, maternal one that is uniquely vocal in ceremonies, unlike other kachinas.” ref

Masauwu

“Masauwu is an earth god as much as he was a stark spirit of death. He ruled over the Land of the Dead, overseeing the passage of the dead and other kachinas. Since the Underworld was an opposite reflection of our world, Masauwu performed many normal actions backward. Beneath his hideous kachina mask, he was a handsome, decorated young man.” ref

Kokopelli

“Of all the kachina (yes, all 400 plus), Kokopelli is possibly the most recognizable to the untrained eye. He is a fertility spirit with a distinct hunchback. He is the guardian of childbirth, a trickster god, and a master musician.” ref

Shulawitsi

“Shulawitsi is a young boy that wields a firebrand. Despite not being much to look at, this kachina watches over the Sun and burns fires. Shulawitsi’s responsibility is a large one for such a seemingly young child. He is known as the Little Fire God.” ref

Choctaw Gods

“The Choctaw are Native Americans originally belonging to the southeastern United States, though today there is a significant population in Oklahoma as well. They, along with the others of the “Five Civilized Tribes” – the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole – suffered horrifically during what is now known as the Trail of Tears. It is suspected that the Choctaw may have primarily worshiped a solar deity, placing them above other gods.” ref

Nanishta

“Nanishta is considered to be one of the creator spirits of Native American mythology, thus making him a Great Spirit. In some variations of Choctaw creation myths, Nanishta created the first people – and other deities – out of the Nanih Waiya Mound. Later interpretations conflate Nanishta with a solar deity, Hashtali.” ref

Hashtali

“Hashtali is a sun god that flies across the sky on a massive buzzard. He has an innate relationship with fire, being the sun and all. So strong were his ties to fire that when Uncta – a trickster spider god – gave man fire, the fire reported what was happening back to Hashtali. According to the Choctaw, Hashtali is the father of all the stars in the sky.” ref

Hvashi

“Hvashi was the wife of Hashtali and the mother of Unknown Woman. She is a moon goddess who flew on the back of a giant owl. On nights without a moon during the lunar cycle, Hvashi would spend the evenings in the company of her beloved husband.” ref

Unknown Woman

“In Choctaw religious beliefs, Unknown Woman (Ohoyochisba) is a corn goddess. She is described as a beautiful woman in all-white wearing fragrant blooms. The later myth suggests that she is the daughter of Nanishta, the Great Spirit, but she is actually the daughter of Hvashi and Hashtali.” ref

Eskeilay

“Eskeilay ruled over a subterranean realm of pre-birth, where spirits lingered waiting to be born. She is known as the Mother of the Unliving. It is thought that Esleilay rules over grasshoppers, ants, and locusts.” ref

Tlingit-Haida Gods

“The Tlingit and Haida tribes are united in the Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska (CCTHITA). Both cultures – as with most tribes ancestrally tied to the western reaches of North America – created totem poles. The Haida are particularly renowned craftsmen, implementing copper into their creations. A totem pole’s appearance and its specific meaning can vary from culture to culture. While being considered sacred, a totem pole was never intended to be used in idol worship.” ref

Yehl and Khanukh

“Yehl and Khanukh are opposing forces of nature. They enforce the perspective of dualism that dominated much of early Tlingit culture. In the Tlingit creation myth, Yehl is the creator of the world we know today; he is a shapeshifting trickster who takes the form of a raven. His theft of freshwater led to the creation of springs and wells. When it comes to Khanukh, it happens that he is significantly older than Yehl. And, with age came power. He is thought to take the form of a wolf. Although not necessarily an evil god, Khanukh is greedy and serious. In all ways, he is the opposite of Yehl.” ref

Chethl

“The Thunder, Chethl was thought to be a giant bird capable of swallowing a whale whole. He created thunder and lightning whenever he took flight. His sister was Ahgishanakhou, the Underground Woman.” ref

Ahgishanakhou

“Ahgishanakhou sits all on her lonesome, guarding the Northwestern world pillar beneath the ground. A piece written by Dorothea Moore for The San Francisco Sunday Call (1904) notes that Ahgishanakhou resided on Mount Edgecumbe – L’ux in the Tlingit language. Whenever the mountain smokes, it is thought that she is making her fire.” ref

Yup’ik Gods

“The Yup’ik are indigenous peoples belonging to various regions of Alaska and the Russian Far East. There are various branches of Yup’ik languages spoken today. Although many Yup’ik practice Christianity today, there is a traditional belief in a cycle of life, where there is rebirth for those who die (including animals). Spiritual leaders in the community could communicate with different supernatural entities, from spirits to gods. Amulets, carved in the form of a certain animal, also hold immense cultural and spiritual significance for Yup’ik peoples.” ref

Tulukaruq

“Tulukaruq is the creator god of Yup’ik religious beliefs. He is humorous and fun-loving, acting as a kind protector of the Yup’ik. Usually, Tulukaruq takes the form of a raven. Since the raven is synonymous with this powerful deity, it is advised against eating raven eggs.” ref

Negury’aq

“Generally, Negury’aq is thought to be the father of the Raven (Tulukaruq) and the husband of Spider Woman. In one myth, he unintentionally created earthquakes after banishing his sister-in-law beneath the earth for scratching him in the middle of a quarrel.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

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SPIDER SHELL GORGETS from the CRABLE SITE in FULTON COUNTY, ILLINOIS

“Spider images have been around for a long time. They have been connected to powerful myths around the world for thousands of years. The earliest spiders, along with their webs, are painted on the walls of open rock shelters in Spain that date to the Paleolithic Period, at least 10,000 years ago. Spider images also appear as recently as the two examples in this picture. Both of these shell gorgets have large spiders engraved across the surface of one side. The example on the left has been computer enhanced to show the outline of the spider. They were found on the Crable site in Fulton County, Illinois and date to the Mississippian Period sometime between CE 1400 and 1450.” ref

“Images of spiders in North America have a strong connection to women and weaving in the form of a mythical being called Spider Woman. Spider images begin to appear more often in the U.S. on items made by late Stone Age cultures in the eastern half of the country. But the spider motif (design or pattern) with its various meanings appear as far north as the Tlingit of North America’s Northwest Coast and as far south as Indian cultures in South America. The spider myths do seem to coalesce in some way, as Franke writes, “When one looks at the legends that relate to Spider Woman from the Americas as a whole, one sees that although beliefs differ from tribe to tribe, a relatively coherent image of Spider Woman emerges.” ref

“She is generally a premier goddess of earth and sky, a creator being and a consort of the sun.” But as the mythological interpretations are viewed around the world, spiders can be seen as having either positive or negative energy. As negative symbols they are associated with divination, illusion, and ensnarement. As positive symbols they are related to good luck, wealth, protection from storms and emblems of bringing heavenly gifts.” ref

“Dickson Mounds is a Native American settlement site and burial mound complex near Lewistown, Illinois. It is located in Fulton County on a low bluff overlooking the Illinois River. It is a large burial complex containing at least two cemeteries, ten superimposed burial mounds, and a platform mound. The Dickson Mounds site was founded by 800 CE and was in use until after 1250 CE. The life cycles and culture of Native Americans living in the Illinois River valley over a period of 12,000 years since the last ice age. While the members of most hunter-gatherer cultures travel extensively or even practice a nomadic lifestyle, the exceptional productivity of the Illinois River valley in fish, shellfish, and game made it possible for semi-permanent settlements to develop.” ref

“Archaeological examination of these sites have generated significant insights into the living conditions of Native Americans over time and the levels of technology they possessed. A large parcel of the adjacent river bottomland is undergoing preservation and ecosystem restoration as part of the Emiquon Project. The Emiquon wetlands generated much of the food eaten by the people who lived on or near this blufftop site. In 2009, an excavation by Michigan State University turned up sherds of pottery, arrowheads, and the foundations of houses and other structures that date back to about 1300 CE.” ref

“Some of the people who lived here were actually buried in Dickson Mounds itself. Their skeletons were excavated and displayed to the public from the 1930s until 1992, when, in a controversial move, the burial display was resealed due to Native American concerns. It is estimated that there are at least 3,000 burials at this site. The earlier burials were in mounds that were still being built as late as the ninth century, while later burials were in cemeteries. This exemplifies the shift away from the earlier focus on burial mounds as the monumental foci of communities lacking large settlements to the later emphasis on platform mounds at the center of towns. Mississippians decentralized cemeteries, making their communities rather than their burial places the center of their lives. “One group of four Mississippian people buried together appear to have been sacrificed at the Dickson Site”. Their heads were removed and replaced by pots. This was not a practice that would have been common earlier.” ref

“After the sealing, the museum was renovated as a series of galleries that attempt to portray the history of the site. For example, the River Valley Gallery exhibition attempts to depict indigenous life patterns here since the close of the last Ice Age, while the “Reflections on Three Worlds” Gallery exhibition attempts to describe how scholars have used archeological findings to generate inductive evidence on the residents’ life and culture. Excavators left 248 burials in place after exposure, and these were long displayed inside a specially built museum enclosure. The American Indian objections to the display led to its closure in 1992. After that, three excavated dwellings now remain open to visitors at the site, and the museum displays chronicle prehistoric life in the region.” ref

“Combined, the various burial sites at Dickson Mounds comprehensively represent all of the known eras of Native American culture in Illinois. Excavation and analysis of over eight hundred Native American skeletons from these burial sites indicate a transition from hunting and gathering to an agrarian economy and significant health changes in the population as a result of this transition. Earlier settlements at Dickson Mounds (950–1050 CE) indicate an economy based primarily on hunting and gathering. Hunting and gathering provided this population with a mixed and balanced diet. At this time, the population was small and autonomous, traded little with outsiders, and maintained only seasonal camps.” ref

“From 1050 to 1175, Dickson Mounds underwent a transitional phase, moving towards a mixed economy of hunting and gathering combined with agriculture, particularly the cultivation of maize. The population was also developing more permanent settlements and trade networks. From 1175 onward to about 1350, the population size expanded significantly and developed complex permanent settlements. These changes can be attributed to the increased reliance on agriculture and the expansion of long-distance trade during this period.” ref

“The significant lifestyle changes from a small, nomadic, hunter-gatherer society to a large, sedentary, agrarian society resulted in major health changes among the population. After analyzing trends in bone growth, enamel development, lesions, and mortality, archaeologists determined that there was a major decline in health following the adoption and intensification of agriculture. Compared to the hunter-gatherers before them, skeletons of farmers at Dickson Mounds indicate a significant increase in enamel defects, iron-deficiency anemia, bone lesions, and degenerative spinal conditions.” ref

“The decline in the health of Dickson Mounds’ population over time can be attributed to the increased reliance on agriculture, which led to a less varied and less nutritious diet, more strenuous physical labor in the fields, and more crowded permanent settlements that facilitated the spread of infectious diseases. Some also say the decline in health is due to the expansion of long-distance trade with larger economic systems, such as Cahokia, which resulted in exploitative relations in which residents of Dickson Mounds were giving away needed food for items of symbolic value.” ref

Social organization

“Analysis of mortuary behavior from excavations of burial sites at Dickson Mounds provides important insight into the social organization of early Native Americans. Dickson Mounds was a hierarchically organized society. The particular objects an individual was buried with largely indicate his or her social status. For example, an abundance of tools, copper ornaments, and objects made from imported raw materials suggest high rank of an individual. Burials containing pots, spoons, and beads are much more common and indicate a modest social rank.” ref

“Age and sex were also visible determinants of status, which is uncommon in most hierarchically organized societies. Burials were clustered into distinct age-sex classes. For example, mature males with high-ranking status characterized one cluster of burials. Another cluster of burials contained individuals of younger age and lower status. Specific objects signified the status of the various age-sex groups. Whereas objects serving functional purposes (such as cutting or piercing) noted the status of men, cultural and religious artifacts, along with ornamental items, noted the status of females. Marine shells tended to note the status of children. Deep class divisions in the society at Dickson Mounds are also apparent through analysis of the health and heights of the individual skeletons. For example, skeletons from burials show children of an elite class tended to be taller and healthier compared to children from lower classes. This is most probably due to better diets and less strenuous labor requirements among the elite class.” ref

Trade

“Records show that Dickson Mounds was part of a complex trade network with many culturally diverse populations from the Plains area, the Caddoan area, and Cahokia by 1200 CE. In particular, Cahokia provided Dickson Mounds with luxury items such as copper ornaments and marine shell necklaces in exchange for food items such as meat and fish. The trade of foodstuffs for luxury goods required individuals at Dickson Mounds to generate a surplus of food, resulting in an intensification of agricultural production, which bore serious health and social consequences.” ref

Decline

“The population at Dickson Mounds is said to have inexplicably vanished during the late thirteenth to mid-fourteenth century. Possible reasons for the decline of Dickson Mounds are warfare, climate change, and widespread epidemics. Climate change may have had detrimental effects on agriculture, particularly the cultivation of maize, on which the population had become so dependent for subsistence and trade. The significant expansions of the population as well as trade increased contact and transfer of infectious diseases and could also be possible causes of decline.” ref

“Algonquians called needles “pocohaac” and used them to make clothing, nets, ananson (mats), and baskets. These needles are made from deer, Eastern Elk, or pig.” ref 

“But some were more equal than others:” Exploring inequality at Neolithic Çatalhöyük

Elevated income inequality during the middle portion of the site’s occupation, plausibly deliberately tamped down; and no evidence for lasting economic or social inequality.

“Abstract: We explore the ways in which residents of Neolithic Çatalhöyük in Anatolia differentiated themselves as well as the ways in which they did not. We integrate numerous data sets in order to assess patterns of inequality (A) across buildings with contemporaneous occupations, (B) between buildings that did or did not burn at abandonment, and (C) through time. We use Gini coefficients so as to maximize comparability with other studies of inequality in the ancient and modern worlds, discussing the underlying data and our results to clarify and enhance the value of the quantitative analyses. We evaluate whether or not trajectories of inequality align across data sets in order to determine how far success in one realm correlated with success in another. Our results indicate no unified trajectory of inequality through time. We perceive broadly similar access to staple foods, but not to goods less directly related to survival; relatively elevated income inequality during the middle portion of the site’s occupation, plausibly deliberately tamped down; and no evidence for institutionalized or lasting economic or social inequality. These findings shed light on Neolithic social dynamics and also contribute to broader discussions of inequality and the social ramifications of early agropastoralism.” ref 

Clothing in the ancient world

(Clothing like ornaments, can be as much about group solidarity as individuality. People choose expressive ornamentation as a way to express, in visual art, how they relate with others, or demonstrate some authoritative/elite status.)

“The preservation of fabric fibers and leathers allows for insights into the attire of ancient societies. The clothing used in the ancient world reflects the technologies that these peoples mastered. In many cultures, clothing indicated the social status of various members of society. The development of attire and fashion is an exclusively human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. Clothing made of materials such as animal skins and vegetation was initially used by early humans to protect their bodies from the elements. The usage of clothing and textiles across the ages reflects the varying development of civilizations and technologies. Sources available for the study of clothing and textiles include material remains discovered via archaeology; representation of textiles and their manufacture in art; and documents concerning the manufacture, acquisition, use, and trade of fabrics, tools, and finished garments.” ref

“Although aware of other materials, the ancient Egyptians most commonly used linen, a product made from the abundant flax plant. Due to a belief that animal-based fabrics were impure, wool was rarely used and was forbidden in places like temples and sanctuaries. Other animal-based products such as pelts were reserved for priests and eventually were adopted by only the highest class of ancient Egyptian citizenry. Linen is light, strong and flexible which made it ideal for life in the warm climate, where abrasion and heat would wear and tear at clothing. Thus, most ancient Egyptians used linen as their primary textile.” ref

“The material quality of garments differed between the classes, where those of the upper class used finer linens, depicted in statues and paintings by their translucency. They also used more complex drapery, designs and patterns that included dyed threads and feathers. These materials were expensive and the wearer showed greater status by wearing them. On the other hand, cheaper and thicker linen was used within the lower class, where shorter garments were worn by the working class for better mobility in the fields.” ref

“Men in ancient Egypt often wore the loincloth (or schenti common in all classes) although men of a higher class wore longer schenti, often pairing them with a draped cape or tunic. It was considered acceptable for men and women alike to bare their chests, in both upper and lower classes. A complete lack of clothing, however, was often associated with youth or poverty; it was common for children of all social classes to be unclothed up to the age of six, and for slaves to remain unclad for the majority of their lives. Certain clothing common to both genders included the tunic and the robe. Around 1425 to 1405 BC, a light tunic or short-sleeved shirt was popular, as well as a pleated skirt.” ref

“Clothing for adult women remained unchanged over several millennia, save for small details. Draped clothes with very large rolls gave the impression of wearing several items. It was in fact a hawk, often of very fine muslin. The dress was rather narrow and even constricting, made of white or unbleached fabric for the lower classes. Garments worn by higher classes featured sleeves starting under the chest and were held up by suspenders tied onto the shoulders. These suspenders sometimes covered the breasts, other times passing between them, and were painted and colored for various reasons such as to imitate the plumage on the wings of Isis.” ref

“The characteristic of the female garment in ancient Egypt Old Kingdom was a short skirt for the lower classes, or a kalasiris, a longer skirt reaching from the ankles to just below, or just above the breasts. By the Middle Kingdom, long kilts were a fashion. They were like skirts, reaching from waist to ankles, sometimes even hanging from the armpits. The New Kingdom was the more luxurious period; people wore more clothing, sometimes in layers, with an inner and an outer garment. This outer layer was made of particularly fine, diaphanous pleated linen, and would appear almost transparent.” ref

“Clothing of the royal family was different, and was well documented; for instance the crowns of the Pharaohs as mentioned below, feather headdresses, and the khat or head cloth were all worn by nobility. Shoes were the same for both sexes; sandals braided with leather, or, particularly for the bureaucratic and priestly classes, papyrus.” ref

“Embalming made it possible to develop cosmetic products and perfumery very early. Perfumes in Egypt were scented oils which were very expensive. In antiquity, people made great use of them. The Egyptians used make-up much more than anyone else at the time. Kohl, used as eyeliner, was eventually obtained as a substitute for galena or lead oxide which had been used for centuries. Eye paint was the most common form and was used to shield the eyes from the sun. The reason for them to wear eye makeup is to protect the eyes from the sun’s rays and ward off infection. The dramatic makeup also imitated the facial markings of the sun god Horus, who was often depicted as a falcon. Eye shadow was made of crushed malachite and lipstick of ochre. Substances used in some of the cosmetics were toxic, and had adverse health effects with prolonged use. Beauty products were generally mixed with animal fats in order to make them more compact, more easily handled and to preserve them. Nails and hands were also painted with henna. Only the lower class had tattoos.” ref

“It was also fashionable at parties for men and women to wear a perfumed cone on top of their heads. The cone was usually made of ox tallow and myrrh and as time passed, it melted and released a pleasant perfume. When the cone melted it was replaced with a new one (see the adjacent image with the musician and dancers). The use of cosmetics differed slightly between social classes, where more make-up was worn by higher class individuals  as wealthier individuals could afford more make-up. Although there was no prominent difference between the cosmetics styles of the upper and lower class, noble women were known to pale their skin using creams and powders. This was due to pale skin being a sign of nobility as lighter skin meant less exposure to the sun whereas dark skin was associated with the lower class who tanned while taking part in menial labor such as working in the fields. This led to paler skin represented the non-working noble class, as noble woman would not work in the sun.” ref

“Although heads were shaven as both as a sign of nobility and due to the hot climate, hairstyle was a huge part of ancient Egyptian fashion through the use of wigs. Wigs were used by both sexes of the upper and lower class; the quality of wigs depended on the amount of disposable income available, which created a visual rift between classes. Good quality wigs were made of human hair and were ornamented with jewels and woven with gold. In the court, the more elegant examples had small goblets at the top filled with perfume; Pharaohs even wore wig beards for certain special occasions. There is evidence of cheaper wigs made from wool and palm fibres, which were further substituted the woven gold used in its more expensive counterpart with beads and linen.” ref

“The ancient Egyptians talent with substitution enabled wigs and headdresses to be worn by all social classes; for example. the nemes headdress, made from stiff linen and draped over the shoulders was reserved for the elite class to protect the wearer from the sun. On the other hand, headdresses such as the pschent were exclusive for the Pharaoh. Pharaohs also wore various crowns to identify different divinities, such as the horned crown of the goddess Hathor. In both social classes children were represented with one lock of hair remaining on the right side of their head (see the adjacent image). The most common headgear was the kaften, a striped fabric square worn by men.” ref

“It was common for ancient Egyptians to be covered in jewellery because they believed it made them more attractive to the Gods. The upper class Egyptians were fascinated with gold jewelry. They believe that gold is the color of the sun, and it symbolises the sun’s permanence and immortality, because this metal does not corrode or oxidize with time. Accessories were often embellished with inlaid precious and semi-precious stones such as emeralds, pearls, and lapis lazuli, to create intricate patterns inspired from nature. Common motifs included white lotuses, palm leaves, and even animals that represented the gods.” ref

“Although the jewellery used by the lower class had similar motifs and designs, they were made with cheaper substitute materials. Copper was used in place of gold, and glazed glass or faience – a mix of ground quartz and colorant – to imitate precious stones. The most popular stones used were lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise. Jewels were heavy and rather bulky, which would indicate an Asian influence. The lower classes wore small and simple glassware; bracelets also were heavy. They wore a large disk as a necklace of strength, sometimes described as an aegis. Gold was plentiful in Nubia and imported for jewelry and other decorative arts.” ref

“As elsewhere, Cretan clothes in the ancient times were well documented in their artwork where many items worn by priestesses and priests seem to reflect the clothing of most. Wool and flax were used. Spinning and weaving were domestic activities, using a similar technique to the Egyptians of the time. Fabrics were often embroidered and dyed. Minoan clothing is exceptionally gendered, male clothing is in general sparse and uniform, whereas female clothing has much variety and intricacy; indicating well defined social constructs around gender. In Minoan culture the loincloth was worn by both men and women. They are often illustrated in statuettes with a large dagger fixed at the belt. In contrast to Minoan males, females would wear less jewelry, though elaborate hairstyles were equally common.” ref

“Cretan women’s clothing included the first sewn garments known to history. Dresses were long and low-necked, with the bodice being open almost all the way to the waist, leaving the breasts exposed. Dresses were often accompanied by the Minoan corset, an early form of corset created as a close fitting blouse, designed to narrow the waist. The belt, also kept tight, and used to narrow the waist before the corset, a long or short coat, or a hat were used to supplement the female outfit. Ancient brooches, widespread in the Mediterranean, were used throughout the period. The fabric of women’s clothes in elite portraits shows that colourful dyes were common as was intricate embroidery.” ref

“Our knowledge of the dress of male minoans is exceptionally limited as most depictions focus on women. Where we see men they are depicted they wearing a phallic sheath or codpiece. These would sometimes be embroidered or with a simple patterned border. Males are also frequently seen wearing a tight fitting belt, perhaps to accentuate the waist. Men appear to have grown their hair long, and styled it in a variety of ways, including elaborate braids and knots.” ref

“It has been suggested that the two-bar vertical loom originated in Syria or Mesopotamia, but the earliest visual representation occurs in Egypt during the last part of the 2nd millennium BCE. It has also been proposed that this loom could have been developed in connection with the introduction of wool.” ref

Ancient Greek clothing

“Ancient Greece is famous for its philosophy, art, literature, and politics. As a result, classical period Greek style in dress often has been revived when later societies wished to evoke some revered aspect of ancient Greek civilization, such as democratic government. A Greek style in dress became fashionable in France shortly after the French Revolution (1789–1799), because the style was thought to express the democratic ideals for which that revolution was fought, no matter how incorrect the understanding of the historical reality was. ” ref

“Clothing reformers later in the 19th century CE admired ancient Greek dress because they thought it represented timeless beauty, the opposite of complicated and rapidly changing fashions of their time, as well as the more practical reasoning that Grecian-style dresses required far less cloth than those of the Rococo period. Clothing in ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. While no clothes have survived from this period, descriptions exist from contemporary accounts and artistic depiction.” ref

“Clothes were mainly homemade, and often served many purposes (such as bedding). Despite popular imagination and media depictions of all-white clothing, elaborate design and bright colors were favored. Ancient Greek clothing consisted of lengths of linen or wool fabric, which generally was rectangular. Clothes were secured with ornamental clasps or pins (περόνη, perónē; cf. fibula), and a belt, sash, or girdle (zone) might secure the waist.” ref

Peplos, Chitons

“The inner tunic was a peplos or chiton. The peplos was a worn by women. It was usually a heavier woollen garment, more distinctively Greek, with its shoulder clasps. The upper part of the peplos was folded down to the waist to form an apoptygma. The chiton was a simple tunic garment of lighter linen, worn by both genders and all ages. Men’s chitons hung to the knees, whereas women’s chitons fell to their ankles. Often the chiton is shown as pleated. Either garment could be pulled up under the belt to blouse the fabric: kolpos.” ref

Strophion, Epiblema, Veil

“A strophion was an undergarment sometimes worn by women around the mid-portion of the body, and a shawl (epiblema) could be draped over the tunic. Women dressed similarly in most areas of ancient Greece although in some regions, they also wore a loose veil as well at public events and market.” ref

Chlamys

“The chlamys was made from a seamless rectangle of woolen material worn by men as a cloak; it was about the size of a blanket, usually bordered. The chlamys was typical Greek military attire from the 5th to 3rd century BCE. As worn by soldiers, it could be wrapped around the arm and used as a light shield in combat.” ref

Himation

“The basic outer garment during winter was the himation, a larger cloak worn over the peplos or chlamys. The himation has been most influential perhaps on later fashion.” ref

Athletics and nudity

“During Classical times in Greece, male nudity received a religious sanction following profound changes in the culture. After that time, male athletes participated in ritualized athletic competitions such as the classical version of the ancient Olympic Games, in the nude as women became barred from the competition except as the owners of racing chariots. Their ancient events were discontinued, one of which (a footrace for women) had been the sole original competition. Myths relate that after this prohibition, a woman was discovered to have won the competition while wearing the clothing of a man—instituting the policy of nudity among the competitors that prevented such embarrassment again.” ref

Ancient Israelite clothing

“The earliest and most basic garment was the ezor (/eɪˈzɔːr/ ay-ZOR) or ḥagor (/xəˈɡɔːr/ khə-GOR), an apron around the hips or loins, that in primitive times was made from the skins of animals. It was a simple piece of cloth worn in various modifications, but always worn next to the skin. Garments were held together by a belt or girdle, also called an ezor or ḥagor.” ref

“The ezor later became displaced among the Hebrews by the kuttoneth (/kɛˈtɔːnɛt/ ket-AW-net). an under-tunic. The kuttoneth appears in Assyrian art as a tight-fitting undergarment, sometimes reaching only to the knee, sometimes to the ankle. The kuttoneth corresponds to the undergarment of the modern Middle Eastern agricultural laborers: a rough cotton tunic with loose sleeves and open at the breast. Anyone dressed only in the kuttoneth was considered naked.” ref

“The simla (/sɪmˈlɑː/ sim-LAH) was the heavy outer garment or shawl of various forms. It consisted of a large rectangular piece of rough, heavy woolen material, crudely sewn together so that the front was unstitched and with two openings left for the arms. Flax is another possible material. In the day it was protection from rain and cold, and at night peasant Israelites could wrap themselves in this garment for warmth (see Deuteronomy 24:13).” ref

“The front of the simla also could be arranged in wide folds (see Exodus 4:6) and all kinds of products could be carried in it (See 2Kings 4:39, Exodus 12:34). Every respectable man generally wore the simla over the kuttoneth (See Isaiah 20:2–3), but since the simla hindered work, it was either left home or removed when working. (See Matthew 24:18). From this simple item of the common people developed the richly ornamented mantle of the well-off, which reached from the neck to the knees and had short sleeves.” ref

“The me’il (/məˈiːl/ mə-EEL) or cloak was generally worn over the undergarment, (See 1Samuel 2:19, 1Samuel 15:27). The me’il was a costly wrap (See 1Samuel 2:19, 1Samuel 18:4, 1Samuel 24:5, 1Samuel 24:11) and, according to the description of the priest’s me’il, was similar to the sleeveless abaya (Exodus 28:31). This, like the me’il of the high priest, may have reached only to the knees, but it is commonly supposed to have been a long-sleeved garment made of a light fabric, probably imported from Syria.” ref

Religious wear

“The Torah commands that Israelites wear tassels or fringes (ẓiẓit, /tsiːˈtsiːt/ tsee-TSEET or gedilim, /ɡɛˈdiːl/ ghed-EEL) attached to the corners of garments (see Deuteronomy 22:12, Numbers 15:38). Women would wear head coverings. Phylacteries or tefillin (Hebrew: תְפִלִּין) are in use by New Testament times (see Matthew 23:5). Tefillin are boxes containing biblical verses that are attached to the forehead and arm by leather straps. They are worn only during prayer.” ref

Headwear

“Depictions show some Hebrews and Syrians bareheaded or wearing merely a band to hold the hair together. Hebrew peasants undoubtedly also wore head coverings similar to the modern keffiyeh, a large square piece of woolen cloth folded diagonally in half into a triangle. The fold is worn across the forehead, with the keffiyeh loosely draped around the back and shoulders, often held in place by a cord circlet. Men and women of the upper classes wore a kind of turban, cloth wound about the head. The shape varied greatly.” ref

Footwear

“Sandals (na’alayim) of leather were worn to protect the feet from burning sand and dampness. Sandals might also be of wood, with leather straps (Genesis 14:23, Isaiah 5:27). Sandals were not worn in the house nor in the sanctuary (see Exodus 3:5, Joshua 5:15).” ref

Women

“A woman’s garments mostly corresponded to those of men: they wore simla and kuttoneth. Women’s garments evidently differed too from that of men (see Deuteronomy 22:5). Women’s garments were probably longer (compare Nahum 3:5, Jeremiah 13:22, Jeremiah 13:26, Isaiah 47:2), had sleeves (2Samuel 13:19), presumably were brighter colors and more ornamented, and may also have been of finer material. Women used to wear veils in public, which distinguished them from women in pagan ancient societies. Even as the custom of veiling dwindled among other ancient societies Israelite females retained it for religious identification. Shawls, dictated by Jewish piety, and other forms of head coverings were also worn by ancient Israelite women in towns such as Jerusalem.” ref

Ancient Roman and Italic clothing

“The clothing of ancient Italy, like that of ancient Greece, is well known from art, literature & archaeology. Although aspects of Roman clothing have had an enormous appeal to the Western imagination, the dress and customs of the Etruscan civilization that inhabited Italy before the Romans are less well imitated (see the adjacent image), but the resemblance in their clothing may be noted. The Etruscan culture is dated from 1200 BCE through the first two phases of the Roman periods. At its maximum extent during the foundation period of Rome and the Roman kingdom, it flourished in three confederacies of cities: of Etruria, of the Po valley with the eastern Alps, and of Latium and Campania. Rome was sited in Etruscan territory. There is considerable evidence that early Rome was dominated by Etruscans until the Romans sacked Veii in 396 BCE.” ref

“In ancient Rome, boys after the age of sixteen had their clothes burned as a sign of growing up. Roman girls also wore white until they were married to say they were pure and virginal. Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.” ref

“Historians believe that originally the toga was worn by all Romans during the combined centuries of the Roman monarchy and its successor, the Roman Republic. At this time it is thought that the toga was worn without undergarments. Free citizens were required to wear togas because only slaves and children wore tunics. By the 2nd century BCE, however, it was worn over a tunic, and the tunic became the basic item of dress for both men and women. Women wore an outer garment known as a stola, which was a long pleated dress similar to the Greek chitons.” ref

“Although togas are now thought of as the only clothing worn in ancient Italy, in fact, many other styles of clothing were worn and also are familiar in images seen in artwork from the period. Garments could be quite specialized, for instance, for warfare, specific occupations, or for sports. In ancient Rome women athletes wore leather briefs and brassiere for maximum coverage but the ability to compete.” ref

“Girls and boys under the age of puberty sometimes wore a special kind of toga with a reddish-purple band on the lower edge, called the toga praetexta. This toga also was worn by magistrates and high priests as an indication of their status. The toga candida, an especially whitened toga, was worn by political candidates. Prostitutes wore the toga muliebris, rather than the tunics worn by most women. The toga pulla was dark-colored and worn for mourning, while the toga purpurea, of purple-dyed wool, was worn in times of triumph and by the Roman emperor.” ref

“After the transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire in c. 44 BCE, only men who were citizens of Rome wore the toga. Women, slaves, foreigners, and others who were not citizens of Rome wore tunics and were forbidden from wearing the toga. By the same token, Roman citizens were required to wear the toga when conducting official business. Over time, the toga evolved from a national to a ceremonial costume. Different types of togas indicated age, profession, and social rank. Roman writer Seneca criticized men who wore their togas too loosely or carelessly. He also criticized men who wore what were considered feminine or outrageous styles, including togas that were slightly transparent.” ref

“The late toga of adult citizens, the toga virilis, was made of plain white wool and worn after the age of fourteen. A woman convicted of adultery might be forced to wear a toga as a badge of shame and curiously, as a symbol of the loss of her female identity. The ancient Romans were aware that their clothing differed from that of other peoples. In particular, they noted the long trousers worn by people they considered barbarians from the north, including the Germanic Franks and Goths. The figures depicted on ancient Roman armored breastplates often include barbarian warriors in shirts and trousers.” ref

Damien Marie AtHope’s Art

ref

“Bizarre ‘Spider Stones’ Found at Site of Neolithic Sun-Worshipers. Two of the 5,000-year-old “spider stones” unearthed on the Danish island on Bornholm. Spider stones look a little like hundreds of inscribed “sun stones” or “solar stones” — solsten in Danish.” ref 

Ashanti of Ghana: How Spider Obtained the Sky-God’s Stories

“Anansi, the trickster from the folktales of the Ashanti of West Africa, takes the shape of a spider who goes to the sky god to buy his stories to share with the world. Anansi’s stories would become popular through the African diaspora all over the Caribbean and southern US. Below is an animated retelling called “Anansi and the Story of the Sky God.” ref

“Once there were no stories in the world. Kwanku Anansi the spider once went to Nyan-Kopon the sky god in order to buy the sky god’s stories. The sky god said, “What makes you think you can buy them?” The spider answered, “I know I shall be able.” Thereupon, the sky god said, “Great and powerful towns like Kokofu, Bekwai, Asumengya have come and they were unable to purchase them, and yet you who are but a masterless man, you say you will be able?” ref

The spider said, “What is the price of the stories?” The sky god said, “They cannot be bought for anything except Onini the python, Osebo the leopard, Mmoatia the fairy, and Mmoboro the hornet.” The spider said, “I will bring some of all of these.” ref

“The sky god said, “Go and bring them then!” Anansi set about capturing these. First he went to where Python lived and debated out loud whether Python was really longer than the palm branch or not as his wife Aso says. Python overheard and, when Anansi explained the debate, agreed to lie along the palm branch. Because he cannot easily make himself completely straight a true impression of his actual length is difficult to obtain, so Python agreed to be tied to the branch. When he was completely tied, Anansi took him to the sky god.” ref

“To catch the leopard, Anansi dug a deep hole in the ground. When the leopard fell in the hole Anansi offered to help him out with his webs. Once the leopard was out of the hole he was bound in Anansi’s webs and was carried away. To catch the hornets, Anansi filled a calabash with water and poured some over a banana leaf he held over his head and some over the nest, calling out that it was raining. He suggested the hornets get into the empty calabash, and when they obliged, he quickly sealed the opening.” ref

“To catch the fairy he made a doll and covered it with sticky gum. He placed the doll under the Odum (Tree of Life) where the fairies play and put some yam in a bowl in front of it. When the fairy came and ate the yam she thanked the doll which of course did not reply. Annoyed at its bad manners she struck it, first with one hand then the other. The hands stuck and Anansi captured her.” ref

Anansi handed his captives over to Nyan the sky god. The latter said, “Kawku Anansi, from today and going on forever, I present my sky god stories to you, kose! kose! kose! my blessing, my blessing, my blessing! No more shall we call them the sky god stories, but we shall call them the spider stories! Anansi the trickster is a West African God. He often takes the shape of a spider and is considered to be the god of all knowledge of stories. He is also one of the most important characters of West African and Caribbean folklore.” ref

“The Anansi tales are believed to have originated in the Ashanti people in Ghana. (The word Anansi is Akan and means, simply, spider.) They later spread to other Akan groups and then to the West Indies, Suriname, and the Netherlands Antilles. On Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire he is known as Nanzi, and his wife as Shi Maria. He is also known as Ananse, Kwaku Ananse, Anancy, and in the southern US, Aunt Nancy. In some beliefs, Anansi is responsible for creating the sun, the stars and the moon, as well as teaching mankind the techniques of agriculture. Anansi shares similarities with the trickster figure of Br’er Rabbit, who originated from the folklore of the Bantu-speaking peoples of south and central Africa.” ref 

Native American The Spider Symbol

“Native American Indians were a deeply spiritual people and they communicated their history, thoughts, ideas and dreams from generation to generation through Symbols and Signs such as the Spider symbol. The origin of the Spider symbol derives from the ancient Mississippian culture of the Mound Builders of North America and were major elements in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex of American prehistory (S.E.C.C.). Some of the Siouan Indian tribes still retain some elements of the Mississippi culture and the legend of Spider. Their sacred rites, myths and symbols and are presumed to descend from the Mississippians. For additional information please refer to the Meanings of Animal Symbols. In Cherokee mythology the water spider is said to have first brought fire to the inhabitants of the earth in the basket on her back. Among some American Indians is the legend of a “Spider Man,” whose web connected the heaven worlds with the earth.” ref

“Native American Symbols, like the Spider symbol, can vary in meaning from one tribe to another and across the culture groups of North America. The Spider symbol was used by the ancient Native Americans of the Mississippian culture. Discover facts and information about the meanings of secret and mysterious symbols used by Native American Indians in a List of Symbols including the Spider symbol.” ref

“The Spider symbol featured strongly in the Mississippian culture of the Mound Builders and the legends and mythology of the Native American tribes. Spider Woman, or Spider Grandmother, strongly feature in Hopi myths served as a messenger and teacher for the Creator and was an intercessor between deity and the people. The spider woman taught people how to weave and the spider symbolized creativity and was the weaver of the fabric of life. For additional information refer to Power Animals.” ref

“In Lakota Sioux mythology, Iktomi is a spider trickster and shape shifter spirit – refer to Tricksters. His appearance is that of a spider, but he can take any shape, including that of a human. When he is a human he is said to wear red, yellow and white paint, with black rings around his eyes. The Seneca tribe, one of the six nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, believed that a supernatural spirit called Dijien was a man-sized spider who survived fierce battles because its heart was buried underground.” ref

“Native American gorgets are ancient ornaments worn on the chest and suspended around the neck. They were commonly made of seashells, turtle shells, copper or slate and were embellished with engravings and colors. The spider symbol at the top of the page was on a conch shell gorget from the Great Mound at Spiro, Oklahoma. Another ancient water spider shell gorget from Fains Island, Tennessee is shown below. Some of these ancient gorgets were created with apertures and believed to be used as a spinner called a ‘Bullroarer’ that could produce mysterious whistling sounds. The spider symbol gorgets illustrate a traditional legend about the water spider bringing fire to humanity.  The spider symbol worn as a necklace, or gorget amulet, was are believed to have held protective properties. As expensive and highly valuable ornaments they were also believed to denote status or rank within a tribe.” ref

“Spider Woman, or Spider Grandmother, strongly feature in Hopi myths served as a messenger and teacher for the Creator and was an intercessor between deity and the people. The spider woman taught people how to weave and the spider symbolized creativity and was the weaver of the fabric of life. In a creation myth the Spider Woman, the Earth Goddess, and Tawa, the Sun God were the first. Tawa, the sun god ruled the Upperworld while Spider Woman controlled the magic of the Underworld. There were no humans, birds, nor animals until Tawa and Spider Woman made it so. Spider Woman had Twin sons similar to the (Divine Twins seen in Proto-Indo-European beliefs), the Monster Slayers, another connection with the Mississippian culture of the Mound Builders.” ref 

Duality in mythology: Dual Deities, Devine Couple, or Devine Twins beyond Proto-Indo-European

“The Divine Twins are youthful horsemen, either gods or demigods, who serve as rescuers and healers in Proto-Indo-European mythology. Like other Proto-Indo-European divinities, the Divine Twins are not directly attested by archaeological or written materials, but scholars of comparative mythology and Indo-European studies generally agree on the motifs they have reconstructed by way of the comparative method. Although the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) name of the Divine Twins cannot be reconstructed with certainty based on the available linguistic evidence, the most frequent epithets associated with the two brothers in liturgic and poetic traditions are the “Youthful” and the “Descendants” (sons or grandsons) of the Sky-God (Dyēus) .” ref

“Two well-accepted reflexes of the Divine Twins, the Vedic Aśvins and the Lithuanian Ašvieniai, are linguistic cognates ultimately deriving from the Proto-Indo-European word for the horse, *h₁éḱwos. They are related to Sanskrit áśva and Avestan aspā (both from Indo-Iranian *Haćwa), and to Old Lithuanian ašva, which all share the meaning of “mare“. This may point to an original PIE divine name *h₁éḱw-n-, although this form could also have emerged from later contacts between Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-Balto-Slavic speakers, which are known to have occurred in prehistoric times.” ref

“Represented as young men rescuing mortals from peril in battle or at sea, the Divine Twins rode the steeds that pull the sun across the sky and were sometimes depicted as horses themselves. They shared a sister, the Dawn (*H₂éwsōs), who is also portrayed as the daughter of the Sky-God (*Dyēus) in Indo-European myths. The two brothers are generally depicted as healers and helpers, travelling in miraculous vehicles to save shipwrecked mortals. They are often differentiated: one is represented as a physically strong and aggressive warrior, while the other is seen as a healer who rather gives attention to domestic duties, agrarian pursuits, or romantic adventures.” ref

“In the Vedic, Greek and Baltic traditions, the Divine Twins similarly appear as the personifications of the morning and evening star. They are depicted as the lovers or the companions of a solar female deity, preferably the Sun’s daughter but sometimes also the Dawn. In the majority of the stories where they appear, the Divine Twins rescue the Dawn from a watery peril, a theme that emerged from their role as the solar steeds.” ref

“During the night, the Divine Twins were said to return to the east in a golden boat, where they traversed a sea to bring back the rising sun each morning. During the day, they crossed the nocturnal sky in pursuit of their consort, the morning star. In what seems to be a later addition confined to Europe, they were said to take a rest at the end of the day on the “Isles of the Blessed”, a land seating in the western sea which possessed magical apple orchards. By the Bronze Age, the Divine Twins were also represented as the coachmen of horse-driven solar chariots.” ref

“Myths concerning the “hero twins” are widespread from Canada to South America. In the archetypal Maya myth, a pair of twin brothers battle with a range of monsters and death deities as they seek to make the world safe for humankind. Instead of defeating their enemies in trials of strength, they outwit them in games of skill, ingenuity, and magic, offering role models of how best to survive death and ultimately attain rebirth into the sky. A variety of myths throughout North America draw on these same themes but differ dramatically in the details, thereby demonstrating the incredible antiquity of the basic story and the relationships between the diverse cultures of the New World.” ref

“The Hero Twins (or God Boys) are recurring characters from the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The specifics of each myth vary from tribe to tribe, but each story has a pair of twins (usually with magical powers) who were born when their pregnant mother was killed by the tale’s antagonist. Twins were considered unnatural in many cultures of this region, with beliefs about them having supernatural abilities. Sometimes, the twins are separated at birth. Various versions have their mother’s killer leaving one where he could be easily be found by his family and the other deep in the wilderness so that one boy grew up civilized and the other wild. Eventually they become reunited and avenge the death of their mother. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca are culture heroes and creator deities of the Aztecs and are said to be brothers. They are often seen in competition with each other, like when the two fought over who would become the sun.^[1] They are also seen as allies however, as both are considered protectors of Earth. They are also depicted as having another brother, Xolotl. He is even shown as helping Quetzalcoatl returning the bones of the humans to the land of the living to bring them back to life.” ref

“The Twin Heroes share many similarities in the mythology of different tribes, but are different in their relationships with other mythological figures, their associations with stars or animal spirits, and the nature of the particular adventures they go on. In some traditions, the twins personified good and evil: one twin is good while the other is evil, but in others both are benevolent heroes. In some versions of this myth, the evil twin manipulates others into blaming his good brother for his misdeeds. The two brothers coexisted for a while, each making their own changes to the world. In the end, though, the Twin Gods fight each other, and the good brother prevails. In other traditions, the Twin Gods are not considered good or evil but instead represent day and night, summer and winter, and life and death. In some versions of that tradition, one is a trickster rather than a villain, and the brothers’ relationship is one of rivalry rather than enmity.” ref

The Spider Clan

“From the Japanese Mythology and Folklore website comes a revealing piece that links the spider with shamanic clans in East Asia. The spider was synonymous in the ancient Kojiki and Nihongi chronicles with local indigenous renegade clans. The symbol later evolved into the yokai supernatural folkloric proportions that we know today. These clans were found from Yamato Katusragi to the easternmost Japan, and associated with mounds and caves or rockcut catacombs. They were thus either indigenous descendants of the Jomon, or another settled tribe of Eurasian or Southeast Asian origin.” ref

“The Chu (Zhu) state, Zhou dynasty period people in Southeast Asia had a spider as their totem (and Chinese character name). Altaic shamans, in addition to deer and bird, sometimes had the spider spirit as helper in their travels to the Underworld. From Lappland to Central Asia, the spider was a divine or lucky emblem, but large hairy or venomous spiders were also best known there and associated with caverns and holes in the ground, among which species were the Ladectrus or the black widow spider, that commanded the respect of the land’s peoples.” ref

“Japan has an East Asian species that spins characteristic webs very low from the ground, trapping predators and deterring mammals. A benevolent goddess spider is still known from the folklore surrounding the Joren Falls in the Izu peninsula in eastern Japan. The spider is also associated with the Orion constellation from ancient Eurasia across the Beringia to the Americas (among the folklore of the Chinook, Bigfoot and other tribes).” ref

Journeys to the sun: Heavenly symbols in shamanism and rock art of Siberia and Central Asia

“Siberia and Central Asia are the regions where shamanism is well documented historically as well as ethnographically. Most spectacular data concerns Siberia, where local museums have extensive collections of the shamanic material culture, dated mostly to nineteenth and twentieth centuries (e.g. Gorbacheva and Solov’eva 2006). Central Asia appears less spectacular in this context, as shamanism only occurs there in syncretic form, being mixed with other religious beliefs and practices, mostly Islam. Thorough research shows, however, that in pre-Islamic times shamanism also played an important role in Central Asia. In addition to the museums’ treasure, however, evidence of shamanism can also be found among natural landscapes in the form of rock art, i.e., images engraved, pecked, or painted on natural surfaces of rocks. Ancient images on rocks have been created through millennia. The oldest rock art in Siberia and Central Asia date to Upper Paleolithic or Neolithic periods, while most recent images were created in XVIII-XIX centuries.” ref

“Although we cannot be sure to what extent the rock art images were symbolic in nature, there is no question that they “commented” on local culture. Even if they coded complex symbolic concepts, they did it through images which often held realistic references. So, although shamanism is full of symbols which refer to myths and the invisible world, the shaman has always been a real igure, which also used real ritual attributes. Such images of shamans can be found also in rock art. The most evident shamanic imagery comes from relatively recent times, probably throughout the last few centuries. The rock images of shamans are often marked out by their key ritual attribute – the drum. Some of them are shown as single igures, in other cases they appear in more complex compositions. The latter evidently represent ritual ceremonies. These truly shamanic petroglyphs are often small or even very small in size – some of them measure just a few centimeters.” ref

“Many such engravings can be found on the rocks of the Altai and Sayan Mountains in southern Siberia (Rozwadowski 2015), though it is not the only region in Siberia with such imagery (Rozwadowski 2014). The Altai itself is sacred for its indigenous people, so called Altaians or Altaic Turks, as they speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. Shamans fulfilled different functions. They could affect hunting success, and influence the weather, but very often, their work was connected with curing. Such curing was a symbolic process, as according to shamanic beliefs any physical or mental illness resulted from the lost part of the human soul, or one of souls (as it was believed that a human has several souls). To cure such a ‘sick’ person, the shaman had to find the lost soul and return it. Shamanic rituals were thus symbolic journeys during which shamans traveled to the world of spirits.” ref

“As the spirits lived in different and distant places of the Cosmos, shamans had to cross many levels of the Universe to reach the right place. The journeys were made to upper or lower worlds, they could also be of a horizontal nature. Many rituals, however, were linked with journeying to the spirits of the upper world. Ethnographic documentations of Siberian beliefs show that the Cosmos was multileveled. A common imagination of its three-leveled structure, i.e. Upper, Middle and Lower Worlds, however, should be treated as a working schema, as only the Heavenly sphere (Upper World) consisted of up to sixteen levels (local traditions difer in this matter). The concept of the “Heavenly journey” could thus be a very complex story, and only the most powerful and experienced shamans knew how to reach the highest levels of Heaven. Sun, moon, and other heavenly symbols were, therefore, common topics of shamanic beliefs and stories. Some ethnographers were successful in documenting such beliefs also in a graphic way.” ref

“For example, over fifty years ago, Ekaterina Prokof’eva (1961) published several drawings which were created by Selkup men in the 1920s in which they represented their imagination of the Universe (Selkup people live in Southern-Western Siberia and are supposed to have historical links with the Sayan Mountain region). One of the drawings represents a shaman’s journey to Heaven, which is represented by two semicircles connected with the Earth, i.e. the human word, by the ladder – ‘way of spirits’. The two semicircles were described as Heaven’s interior; the shaman could reach only its lower level while the highest (upper semicircle) was inaccessible for him. On the left of Heaven’s interior is the composition consisting of sledge, tree, a yurt-dwelling, and seven ‘human’ igures. Above them is the sun.” ref

“Signiicantly, Selkups associated all of these images with the sun: sledge was described as the vehicle of the rising sun, the tree was referred to as a solar tree, the yurt was a solar yurt (exactly ‘house of spirits of sunrays’) from which the sun appeared every day, and the row of seven humans was referred to as sunrays-people (number ‘seven’ in Selkup mythology means ‘many’). These latter persons are actually half-human and half-bird beings, which were identified by Selkups as ‘souls’ or ‘life potentials’. The solar epithet of the humans was associated with the life giving power of the sun (the sun was also believed to have power to bring the dead back to life ). Sunrays-humans symbolized thus the descending power of the sun, and this is why humans are bird-like beings – they descended from Heaven to the Earth lying down like birds. In the center of the Earth, next to the ladder, stands the shaman holding a drum (in this case, his work concerned hunting magic). This one scene demonstrates, on the one hand, the importance of the sun in shamanic beliefs, and, on the other hand, the complexity of sun symbolism in Siberian cosmologies.” ref

“The Sun was the symbol of power emanating from the Sky. Interestingly, the sun is similarly worshiped today. Probably a most spectacular example of the present-day veneration of the sun is the Sakha (Yakut) (people inhabiting eastern Siberia) ceremony of New Year, Ysyakh, during which inhabitants of whole villages gather once a year on an open space to celebrate the New Year signaled by the summer solstice. This truly impressive ritual lasts the whole night and finally culminates with the sunrise. Awaiting the sun, people take of their shoes to be closer to nature and raise their hands towards the sun appearing over the horizon. They believe that at this particular moment, the power of the sun can be captured and absorbed into the individual body, thus securing the well-being of the person and the entire community for the following year. Rock images of shamans with drums then possibly code complex symbolic meanings, which we can only imagine as studding ethnographically documented beliefs and rituals. These data shed further light on the symbolism of the shamanic drum.” ref

“The drum was indeed a very powerful instrument and was directly linked to shamans’ journeys to other worlds. Namely, the drum functioned as a mount on which the shaman rode to the sky. There was a special ceremony of drum animation – depending on which kind of animal skin was used to make the drum, the drum was inally transformed into this animal. If it was horse skin, as often happened among the Turkic people in southern Siberia, the drum became the horse. It was then a drum-horse on which the shaman ‘rode through the Cosmos, and the drumstick was his whip. It is clearer, therefore, why astral symbols are richly represented in shamanic iconography, including shamanic drums. In much older (older the 2000 years) rock art in Siberia and Central Asia, depictions of shamans are absent.” ref

“Neither are drums represented. But there are petroglyphs that seem to confirm the existence of a kind of worship of astral bodies. We are not sure whether such petroglyphs should be called shamanic. But it seems likely that the sun, the moon, and the sky, in all its diversity, constituted an important element of the beliefs of the people of Siberia and Central Asia as early as the Bronze Age, i.e., three to four- thousand years ago. This may be evidenced by the petroglyphs of the Valley of Tamgaly in south-eastern Kazakhstan. Their most spectacular forms represent human figures with circular patterns replacing their heads. Some of these patterns indeed resemble a radiating sun which resulted in labeling such petroglyphs as solar-headed beings. Relationships in which such petroglyphs appear with other petroglyphs in the Tamgaly, suggest that their shamanic context is truly possible.” ref

“They would, therefore, be very ancient traces of shamanic beliefs, which would also include the worship of solar symbols. It should be added, however, that studies on altered states of is a common term for such imagery. Could such images in rock art then be visionary images hallucinated in trance states? Neuropsychological studies inform that such trance-induced patterns are usually transformed into images somehow important for the person – the individual tries to make sense of entoptics, elaborating them into iconic forms, i.e., transforming them into culturally known shapes. Such ‘transformations’ could simply be physiologically determined (there are reports on men who interpreted circular entoptics as women breasts) but the religious context could be equally important. If, let us assume, the sun was an important religious symbol, trance-induced geometric circular patterns could indeed be interpreted by prehistoric peoples as images of the sun.

“There is yet another place in Central Asia where solar-headed petroglyphs can be found. The site is known as Saimaly-Tash, which means “Patterned- Stone”, and is situated in Kyrgyzstan. The place is truly exceptional – it is located high in the Fergana Mountains (part of the Tien Shan) at an altitude of 3200 meters above sea level. It is really hard to get to, though it is possible to get there by horse. It takes about five hours from the nearest seasonal nomadic camp. Certainly, it had to be no less dangerous and exhausting journey in ancient times. Only in July and August, the stones in Saimaly-Tash are free from snow, and only then can one see the petroglyphs. Similarly to Tamgaly in Kazakhstan, also here we find engravings of hu- man igures whose heads are replaced by sun-like symbols. The range of associations between man and ‘sun’ in Saimaly-Tash is wider – there are images of humans who seem to hold the ‘sun’ in their hands.” ref

“A surprisingly fascinating context, which can shed light on the mystery of these petroglyphs can be found in ancient Indian sacred texts of the Rig Veda, composed more or less in the second half of the second millennium BCE. It appears that Vedic poets often referred to the sun. The sun, however, was not an object of straightforward worship but was rather a metaphor through which the poets expressed more complex beliefs and individual experiences. Particularly interesting are the fragments of the Rig Veda where the sun appears to be a metaphor for ecstatic experience, which was a privilege of priests who achieved the ritual ecstasy drinking sacred hallucinating drink soma. Drinking soma brought temporal immortality, which made a person equal to gods. Even more intriguing, some hymns state that a man drunk with soma was like the solar deity.” ref

“Shortly speaking, the state of soma intoxication was likened to the sun. If the petroglyphs in Saimaly-Tash, therefore, were created within the context of the Indo-Iranian culture, which is truly possible, the sun-headed figures could be graphic metaphors of ritual ecstasy. In this case, the image of the sun could be consciously chosen to express mental feelings of reaching the highest state of knowledge (maybe even without any reference to entoptic visions). Recalling that some of these rock art figures are holding the sun in their hands, it is surprising to read opinions of researchers of Vedic texts who write that some verses in the Rig Veda make an impression of ‘a close proximity to the sun, as if the author [intoxicated] had it right before his eyes’. Equally, significant is that some human figures in Saimaly-Tash stretch their hands upwards to the Sky.” ref

“Furthermore, taking into account the placement of the site high in the mountains, it is hard not to think that people reaching this place were approaching a liminal point, as only the sky was higher. The detailed symbolism of individual petroglyphs is surely difficult to define. It seems, however, that the sun and sky with stars indeed constituted important components of ancient beliefs and cults of prehistoric peoples in Siberia and Central Asia, and rock art supports this view. In recent times, astral symbols became part of a more complex shamanic culture in Siberia. But the prehistoric rock art inclines us to suggest that the sky was venerated also in much older times, and was the aim of ritual journeys – not only symbolic ones, like in the case of historically documented Siberian shamans, but also real, as evidenced by the Saimaly-Tash petroglyphs in Kyrgyzstan, where prehistoric people climbed to the highest places. It is a hypothesis, but they really believed that the sun was more accessible there. Interestingly, recent research suggests that similar sun-like symbols in European rock art (in the Alps and Scandinavia), stand for a common mythological tradition, which was spread in the Bronze Age from Europe to Central Asia.” ref

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Mantle of spider water, Aztec symbol

Hunab Ku (which translates as “Sole God” or “Only God”) as a symbol